Muṭahharten
Emir
Muṭahharten at the court of Timur, in a Mughal-style miniature by Tulsi with his face painted by Mahdu, from Akbar's copy of Zafarnama (c. 1595–1600).
Emir of Erzincan
Reign1379–late 1403
PredecessorPīr Ḥusayn
SuccessorYār ʿAlī
DiedLate 1403
Consort
ReligionIslam

Muṭahharten (Persian: مـطـهـرتــن), also known as Ṭaharten (طهـرتــن; died late 1403), was Emir of Erzincan from 1379 until his death. He claimed sovereignty when he assumed power, which prompted Sultan ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn 'Ali to go on an expedition to reinstate Eretnid authority over Erzincan. While Muṭahharten ultimately repelled 'Ali, the latter was eventually replaced by his vizier Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn, who was determined to restore the sultanate's former boundaries. Burhān al-Dīn and Muṭahharten were involved in a long-lasting conflict, which was interrupted by the advent of Timur. In grave fear of him, Muṭahharten contently swore allegiance and halted his campaigns in Anatolia, but Timur’s departure reignited the conflict between Muṭahharten and Burhān al-Dīn. Often overpowered by his enemies, Muṭahharten forged alliances with various groups but did not hesitate to turn against his former allies when he saw fit, such as the Aq Qoyunlu. On the other hand, Muṭahharten's relations with the Empire of Trebizond and his Christian subjects were consistent, as he favored them for their economic contribution to his realm through trade.

After Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn's death, Muṭahharten faced a new threat from the Ottoman state, when Bayezid I demanded he surrender Erzincan. Muṭahharten instead relied on Timur's strength and found himself in the midst of the Ottoman–Timurid conflict. Although Timur conquered Sivas in August 1400, Bayezid took Erzincan the next year, imprisoning Muṭahharten for a short period. Muṭahharten continued supporting Timur until he died in late 1403. His death signaled the nearing end for the Emirate of Erzincan.

Background

Erzincan and the region around was located south of the Empire of Trebizond. Although not part of it, it had significant commercial links to Trebizond, being mostly inhabited by Christian Armenians but administered by a Muslim ruler.[1] Ahī Ayna was a local ahī who purchased control of Erzincan from his predecessor sometime before 1348.[2] He first appears in 1348 as a vassal of Eretna, a former Ilkhanid officer who established his sultanate after the dissolution of the Ilkhanate.[3] Following Eretna's death in 1352, Ahī Ayna exercised autonomy and attempted to increase his sphere of influence.[4] In June 1362, Ghiyāth al-Dīn Ahī Ayna Beg went on an expedition in Georgia. He captured Akhaltsikhe, Samstskhe, Atsquri, and had Manglisi pay jizya.[5] On 6 August 1361, he continued his expedition in the region of Lazica, i.e. eastern territories of the Empire of Trebizond.[6] Ahī Ayna was the suzerain of three other emirates, namely those in Erzurum, Bayburt, and Karahisar. His core territory stretched from the Erzincan Plain southwards to Upper Euphrates Valley near Çaltı.[7] He died on 2–3 July 1362 reportedly as a shahīd (martyr).[8]

Pīr Ḥusayn, who was originally the ruler of Karahisar, arrived in Erzincan on 8 June 1362 and succeeded Ahī Ayna Beg. In Abū Bakr Quṭbī's Ta'rīkh-i taqwīm, he is mentioned as an emīr-zāda (lit. 'son of an emir') following the statement about Ahī Ayna's demise, hinting at the possibility he was Ahī Ayna's son.[9] Pīr Ḥusayn's ascendance to the throne was not straightforward as Erzincan was in the midst of a civil war. He "gained independence" on 10 July,[9] having clashed with emirs opposing his rule, who eventually fled to Bayburt and Tercan.[10] On 11 September, he gained direct control of Bayburt after a 32-day siege.[9] Although there is a coin specimen minted in Erzincan for ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn 'Ali dating back to 1366, Pīr Ḥusayn most likely exercised further autonomy, especially following the temporary political vacuum caused by Ghiyāth al-Dīn Muhammad I's death in 1365. However, there aren't any sufficient accounts for the rest of his rule until 1379, when he died.[11]

Rise to power and war with the Eretnids

Muṭahharten took power upon Pīr Ḥusayn's death in 1379. He issued his own coins and had the khuṭba read in his name as a declaration of his sovereignty.[12] In the summer of 1379, magnates in the Eretnid Sultanate pressured ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn 'Ali to declare war on Muṭahharten emphasizing on the historical ties of Erzincan with the Eretnid dynasty. Although the Eretnid vizier Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn opposed an immediate campaign, 'Ali began marching towards Erzincan.[13] Muṭahharten sent an embassy to Sivas, where the Eretnid military headquarters were located, to signal he would be willing to bestow control of the city, fearing the economic impact of the war. When the diplomatic mission was inconclusive, a bloody battle took place. Muṭahharten faced defeat and retreated but still resisted coming under Eretnid rule. He sought the help of external powers, such as the Dulkadirids and Aq Qoyunlu, who sent a large army to Erzincan.[14] The Aq Qoyunlu forces defeated and captured Junayd, an Eretnid emir entrusted with preventing the incoming aid to Muṭahharten, fueling the morale of Muṭahharten's forces. The Eretnids faced a major loss, and 'Ali retreated to Sivas. On the orders of Muṭahharten, his vassal Emir Ordu Shah of Erzurum arrested Isfahan Shah Khatun, the grandmother of 'Ali, who was on the way to Sivas from Baghdad. Although she was eventually released, this deepened the animosity between Muṭahharten and the Eretnids.[15]

First war with Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn

Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn's rise to power as the regent of 'Ali's successor Muḥammad II Chelebī and aim at reenacting authority over the region prompted Muṭahharten to form alliances with Burhān al-Dīn's rivals and other claimants to the Eretnid throne such as Shadgeldi, Emir of Amasya. He built amicable relations with several vassals of Burhān al-Dīn, Malik Aḥmad of Karahisar, and Zannun of Koyulhisar, the latter of whom he arranged his sister's marriage. While Shadgeldi was besieging Tokat, Muṭahharten, and Zannun pushed into Burhān al-Dīn's domains. However, Zannun and his 2 thousand-strong force were eventually defeated by Burhān al-Dīn.[16] Muṭahharten sent an embassy to Burhān al-Dīn and demanded that he return the throne to 'Ali's son, Muḥammad II Chelebī. This was essentially an implicit declaration of Muṭahharten's claim on the Eretnid throne.[17] Tension between Muṭahharten and Burhān al-Dīn peaked when Burhān al-Dīn imprisoned Muṭahharten's embassy. This switched Muṭahharten's stance so that he instead sent his apologies and offered an alliance. Although Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn released his embassy, he sent Shadgeldi's head to Erzincan in 1381 as a warning. The same year, Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn formally declared his sultanate.[18]

Allied with several Mongol and Turkoman chieftains, Muṭahharten went on another campaign on Sivas. He executed his brother-in-law and former ally Zannun, suspicious of his loyalty, and massacred Koyulhisar. He started raiding Sivas with the Mongol tribe of Barambay in the summer–spring of 1382.[19] Burhān al-Dīn dealt with his rivals in the region around Amasya, Tokat, and Osmancık until spring 1383. When his authority in the region became apparent and an internal conflict among the rebels began, he focused on his struggle east.[20] Muṭahharten received Aq Qoyunlu aid led by Aḥmad bin Qutlugh, leading an initially successful joint offensive. Conversely, Burhān al-Dīn reached Erzincan and razed parts of the city to the ground but was unable to capture the city with winter creeping in (1384–5).[21] Burhān al-Dīn's return to Sivas marked the end of the long war between him and Muṭahharten. They agreed to recognize each other's sovereignty and to refrain from getting involved in each other's internal relations. Muṭahharten was further obliged to send military aid to Qāḍī Burhān al-Dīn in times of war.[22]

Advent of Timur

In late 1386, Timur invaded west Iran and was planning his invasion of Armenian highlands from his military camp in Karabakh. Muṭahharten sent his family to Karahisar under the protection of Malik Aḥmad, and the people of Erzincan evacuated their homes. When Timur's embassy arrived in Erzincan, Muṭahharten swiftly agreed to refrain from joining opposition forces and to abide by Timur's rule, which reduced his fears of a direct Timurid attack.[23] Timur recognized Muṭahharten's domains through an exchange of gifts. Although Muṭahharten halted his campaigns in Anatolia during this time, Timur's presence was favored by him and other enemies of Burhān al-Dīn.[24]

When Timur's focus shifted away from the region, Muṭahharten used the Qara Qoyunlu Turkomans who took refuge in his territory in an expedition in Burhān al-Dīn's lands, taking advantage of his absence as he was dealing with the local Turkoman principalities to the north. Burhān al-Dīn returned to Sivas when he learned that Muṭahharten was marching there, which caused Muṭahharten to stop the campaign in the winter of 1387–8 as he did not want to face Burhān al-Dīn directly. However, Burhān al-Dīn initiated preparations to subdue Muṭahharten. In 1387, Muṭahharten reported Burhān al-Dīn to the Mamluk Sultan Barquq as an ally of Timur in an effort to initiate a campaign on Sivas together with the Mamluks, which was successful and lasted until 1389.[25]

Despite his earlier alliance with the Aq Qoyunlu, Muṭahharten started following a hostile policy against them and was ultimately overpowered. He sought the assistance of Qara Mahammad of Qara Qoyunlu and flanked the Aq Qoyunlu forces, who took refuge under Burhān al-Dīn. Shortly after, Muṭahharten and Qara Yusuf, recently-deceased Qara Mahammad's son and successor, planned a major war on the Aq Qoyunlu, but were defeated near Endris. Qara Yusuf was captured, and Muṭahharten fled to Erzincan but reentered Aq Qoyunlu territory. He stationed his army on the right bank of Murat River, confronting the Aq Qoyunlu forces on the opposite side. Although Aḥmad Aq Qoyunlu wanted to make peace with Muṭahharten, whom his sister was married to, Muṭahharten was defeated a second time at the hands of Aḥmad's brother, Qara Yuluk.[26]

Upon the news of another Timurid expedition in 1393–4, Muṭahharten secured his allegiance to Timur. He acted as an ambassador and compatriot during Timur's siege of Avnik. The author of Bazm-u Razm, Astarabadi, of hostile origin to Muṭahharten, describes his actions during this period as cowardly by claiming Muṭahharten stopped administering his region altogether and after kissing Timur's stirrup, changed the name on his coins and the khuṭba to Timur's and tried to provoke him to invade all of Anatolia and Syria.[27] However, Timur left Muṭahharten without a liege, when he departed for Georgia to subdue Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde.[28]

In retribution for Muṭahharten's allegiance to Timur, Burhān al-Dīn took the fortresses of Ezdebir, Sis, and Burtulush. Though, when he departed for Sivas, the guards of these fortresses betrayed him and surrendered control to Muṭahharten. With the support of Aḥmad Aq Qoyunlu, Burhān al-Dīn massacred and decimated the region of Erzincan for a whole month and granted the Aq Qoyunlu the territory spanning Bayburt.[29] On 27 October 1395, he clashed with Burhān al-Dīn at Pulur. Although Muṭahharten came out victorious there, the difficult conflict persisted until Burhān al-Dīn died. Muṭahharten had to escape from his wrath for the next two years.[30] Burhān al-Dīn was killed by Qara Yuluk on 14 July 1398.[31]

Relations with Trebizond and Christians

Starting from 1379 at the latest, the Emirate of Erzincan was the sole neighbor of the Empire of Trebizond except for the Emirate of Haji Amir and Chepni nomads near the Philabonites Valley to the northwest. To the southwest of Chaldia was Muṭahharten's vassal, the Emirate of Karahisar, while Trebizond directly bordered Muṭahharten up to Lazica.[32] According to Kitāb-i Diyār-i Bakriyya, Muṭahharten imposed kharāj on Trebizond. The empire likely was contingent upon Erzincan for matters of security and commerce. The chronicles of Michael Panaretos of 1380–90s lack any mention of clashes with Turks, other than the campaign of Alexios III on the Chepni, most probably because there were no direct border conflicts, and the trade through Trebizond continued. Therefore, Muṭahharten's marriage to the daughter of the emperor was short of fully repaying him for the protection he provided them.[33]

Around 1400, Muslims from the largely Christian city of Erzincan reported to Timur that Muṭahharten cherished the Christian residents more than they favored him. In response to Timur's inquiry about these complaints, Muṭahharten openly agreed that he especially favored the Christians for the benefit of trade. Timur commanded that an influential Greek Orthodox priest from Erzincan convert to Islam. When the priest resisted, Timur ordered the total massacre of the Christians of Erzincan, which Muṭahharten paid him 9,000 aspers for mercy.[34]

Ottoman–Timurid conflict and death

Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I annexed Sivas in 1398 and demanded that Muṭahharten accept his suzerainty. Instead, Muṭahharten relied on Timur, who was unable to diplomatically resolve the dispute over Erzincan but conquered Sivas in August 1400. Bayezid did not shy away from striking back and pushed until Erzincan in 1401, took Muṭahharten[35] and his Trapezuntine wife captive.[34] Muṭahharten was ultimately released and restored as the ruler, when Qara Yusuf, who had been given control of the place, did not fare well with the locals.[35] Muṭahharten momentarily acted as an intermediary between the Ottomans and the Timurids but soon participated in the latter's Anatolian campaign.[35]

Political map of Anatolia, c. 1400

Muṭahharten died in late 1403.[36] He had no surviving male issue.[34] His death signified the final years of the independent Emirate of Erzincan. His grandson Yār ʿAlī ruled between 1403–10 and 1420–5, but continuous conflict between the stronger powers of Aq Qoyunlu and Qara Qoyunlu soon prevailed.[37]

Family and origin

While early Ottoman sources mention that he was of Tatar origin,[38] In Bazm-u Razm, Astarabadi refers to him as the nephew of Eretna,[9] who was of Uyghur descent.[38] Muṭahharten married a daughter of Alexios III of Trebizond.[39] Kitāb-i Diyār-i Bakriyya mentions him as the son-in-law of Aḥmad of Aq Qoyunlu.[38]

References

  1. ↑ Bryer 1975, p. 125.
  2. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 32.
  3. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 666.
  4. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 668; Sinclair 1989, p. 439.
  5. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 669.
  6. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 33.
  7. ↑ Sinclair 1989, p. 439.
  8. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 35–36.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Shukurov 1994, p. 36.
  10. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 36; Yücel 1971, p. 670.
  11. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 670.
  12. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 673.
  13. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 674.
  14. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 675.
  15. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 676–677.
  16. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 677.
  17. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 678–679.
  18. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 680–681.
  19. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 682–683.
  20. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 683.
  21. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 684–685.
  22. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 685–686.
  23. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 687.
  24. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 688.
  25. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 688–690.
  26. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 690–692.
  27. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 693–694.
  28. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 695.
  29. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 696–697.
  30. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 37.
  31. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 27.
  32. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 38.
  33. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 39.
  34. 1 2 3 Bryer 1975, p. 148.
  35. 1 2 3 Shukurov 1994, p. 40.
  36. ↑ Yücel 1971, p. 716.
  37. ↑ Shukurov 1994, p. 40–41.
  38. 1 2 3 Yücel 1971, p. 671.
  39. ↑ Bryer 1975, p. 148; Yücel 1971, p. 671.

Bibliography

  • Bryer, Anthony (1975). "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 29: 113–148. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  • Shukurov, Rustam (June 1994). "Between Peace and Hostility: Trebizond and the Pontic Turkish Periphery in the Fourteenth Century". Mediterranean Historical Review. Routledge. 9 (1): 20–72. doi:10.1080/09518969408569663.
  • Sinclair, T. A. (31 December 1989). Eastern Turkey: An Architectural & Archaeological Survey. Vol. II. Pindar Press. ISBN 978-0-907132-33-2.
  • Yücel, Yaşar (October 1971). "Mutahharten ve Erzincan Emirliği" [Mutahharten and the Emirate of Erzincan]. Belleten (in Turkish). 35 (140): 665–719. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
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