The United States has developed many space programs since the beginning of the spaceflight era in the mid-20th century. The government runs space programs by three primary agencies: NASA for civil space; the United States Space Force for military space; and the National Reconnaissance Office for intelligence space. These entities have invested significant resources to advance technological approaches to meet objectives. In the late 1980s, commercial interests emerged in the space industry and have expanded dramatically, especially within the last 10 to 15 years.

NASA delivers the most visible elements of the U.S. space program. From crewed space exploration and the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon, to the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, Voyager, the Mars rovers, numerous space telescopes, and the Artemis program, NASA delivers on the civil space exploration mandate. NASA also cooperates with other U.S. civil agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to deliver space assets supporting the weather and civil remote sensing mandates of those organizations. In 2022, NASA's annual budget was approximately $24 billion.

The Department of Defense delivers the military space programs. In 2019, the U.S. Space Force started as the primary DoD agent for delivery of military space capability.[1] Systems such as the Global Positioning System, which is ubiquitous to users worldwide, was developed and is maintained by the DoD.[2] Missile warning, defense weather, military satellite communications, and space domain awareness also acquire significant annual investment. In 2023, the annual DoD budget request focused on space is $24.5 billion dollars.[3]

The Intelligence Community, through entities that include the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), invests significant resources in space. Surveillance and reconnaissance are the primary focuses of these entities.

Commercial space activity in the United States was facilitated by the passage of the Commercial Space Launch Act in October 1984.[4][5] Commercial crewed program activity was spurred by the establishment of the $10 million Ansari X Prize in May 1996.

Definition of space flight

Space programs of the United States date to the start of the Space Age in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Programs involve both crewed systems and uncrewed satellites, probes and platforms to meet diverse program objectives.

From a definition perspective, the criteria for what constitutes spaceflight vary. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) are awarded astronaut wings.[6] The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale defines spaceflight as any flight over 62 miles (100 km).[7] This article follows the US definition of spaceflight. Similarly, for uncrewed missions, systems are required to travel above the same altitude thresholds.

Government-led programs

The following summarizes the major space programs where the United States government plays a leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed government-led programs

Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
X-15 programR&D1957–1968
13X-15 Flight 91[8][9]
Project MercuryR&D1958–1963NASA11Mercury-Atlas 6[10][11]
Project GeminiExploration1961–1966NASA19Gemini 4[12]
Project ApolloExploration1961–1972NASA14Apollo 11[13][14]
Manned Orbiting LaboratorySpace Operations1962–1969US Air Force1Test Flight[15]
Space Shuttle programSpace Transportation1972–2011NASA134
[16][17]
Skylab programSpace Operations1973–1974NASA4Skylab 2[18]
Spacelab programSpace Operations1973–199816STS-50[19]
Apollo–Soyuz Test ProjectSpace Operations19751APAS-75 Docking System[20]
International Space Station programSpace Operations1984–present
25 years, 49 days in orbit[21][22]
Constellation programExploration2000s–2010NASA1Ares I-X[23]
Journey to Mars programExploration2010–2017NASA1Exploration Flight Test-1[24][25][26]
Lunar Gateway programExploration2017–present
0[27]
Artemis ProgramExploration2017–present
0[28][29][30]

Uncrewed government-led programs

Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
Project VanguardR&D1956–1959Naval Research Laboratory3Vanguard 1[31]
Explorers ProgramExploration1958–present
91[32][33]
Pioneer programExploration1958–1992
8[34]
KH-1 to KH-6 CoronaReconnaissance1959–1972142Discoverer 1[35]
Ranger programExploration1961–1965NASA4Ranger 7[36][37]
Strategic missile warning programsSurveillance1960–presentUS Space Force39[38][39]
Mariner programExploration1962–1973NASA7Mariner 6 and 7[40]
Centaur upper stage programSpace Transportation1962–2003
91
[41][42]
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)Weather1962–present39[43]
Lunar Orbiter programExploration1963–1967NASA5Lunar Orbiter 3[44]
KH-7 GambitReconnaissance1963–196738[45][46][47]
KH-8 Gambit 3Reconnaissance1966–198454[48][49]
Earth Observing SystemEarth Science1966–presentNASA29[50]
Defense Satellite Communications SystemCommunications1966–presentUS Air Force63DSCS-III[51][52][53]
KH-9 HexagonReconnaissance1971–198419[54]
Landsat programEarth Science1972–presentNASA and USGS9Landsat 9[55][56]
NAVSTAR GPSNavigation1973–presentUS Air Force (1973–2019)
US Space Force (2019 onward)		77GPS Block III[57][58]
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)Weather1975–present18[59]
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS)Communications1983–presentNASA14[60]
Strategic planetary missionsExploration1975–presentNASA8[61][62][63]
Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES)Weather1978–present16[64][65]
MilstarCommunications1985–presentUS Air Force6[66]
UHF Follow-On programCommunications1988–presentUS Navy11[67]
Medium Launch Vehicle II (MLV-II)Space Transportation1988–2004US Air Force14[68]
Discovery programExploration1990–presentNASA12[69]
Strategic astrophysics missionsAstrophysics1991–presentNASA4[70][71]
Mars Exploration ProgramExploration1993–presentNASA8[72][73]
NASA Heliophysics division programsHeliophysics1995–presentNASA63[74]
Evolved Expendable Launch VehicleSpace Transportation1998–presentUS Air Force106[75][76]
New Frontiers programExploration2003–presentNASA3[77]
X-37B programR&D2006–present
6OTV-3[78][79]
AEHF Satellite ProgramCommunications2010–presentUS Space Force6AEHF-1[80][81]
Wideband Global Satcom ProgramCommunications2011–presentUS Space Force10WGS-4[82]

Commercial space programs

The following summarizes the major space programs where private interests play the leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed commercial programs

Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
Space AdventuresSpace tourism1998–present7[83][84]
SpaceShipOneSpace tourism2003–2004Scaled Composites3SpaceShipOne flight 16P[85][86]
SpaceShipTwoSpace tourism2010–presentVirgin Galactic4Virgin Galactic Unity 22[87][88]
Blue Origin New ShepardSpace tourism2015–presentBlue Origin18Blue Origin NS-18[89][90]
DearMoon lunar tourismSpace tourism2018–present0[91][92]
Axiom SpaceSpace tourism2020–present1Axiom Mission 1[93]
Polaris programSpace tourism2021–present1Inspiration4[94][95]
Commercial Crew ProgramSpace transportation2011–present5[96][97]
SpaceX StarshipSpace Transportation2012–presentSpaceX0[98]
Orbital Reef Space StationSpace Operations2021–presentBlue Origin0[99]

Uncrewed commercial programs

Program Purpose Timeline Organization(s) Flights Exemplar mission(s) Refs
Commercial Launch Services (Atlas)Space Transportation
  • 1987–1995
  • 2006–present
  • 9 (1990–93)
  • 11 (1994–95)
AC-69/Atlas I[100][101]
IridiumSatellite communications1987–presentIridium Communications170Iridium 77[102]
GlobalstarSatellite communications1991–presentGlobalstar84[103]
Digital GlobeEarth Imaging1992–presentMaxar Technologies8WorldView-1[104]
OrbcommSatellite data messaging1992–presentOrbcomm62[105]
International Launch Services (Atlas, Proton) [note 1]Space transportation1995–2006
100[106][107]
Sea Launch (Zenit)Space transportation1995–2014
36[108]
DirecTVSatellite Television1995–presentDirecTV19DirecTV T10 satellite[109]
Dish NetworkSatellite Television1996–presentDISH Network Corporation16EchoStar X[110]
Sirius XM RadioSatellite Radio1997–present
  • Sirius Satellite Radio (1998–2008)
  • XM Radio (1999–2008)
  • Sirius XM Radio (2008–present)
13Sirius FM-5[111]
SpaceX Launch ServicesSpace transportation2002–presentSpaceXxx[112]
Commercial Orbital Transportation ServicesSpace transportation2006–20133[113]
United Launch Alliance Commercial Launch ServicesSpace Transportation2006–presentxx[114]
Commercial Resupply ServicesSpace transportation
  • 2008–2020 (Phase 1)
  • 2016–present (Phase 2)
  • 29 (Phase 1)
  • 9 (Phase 2)
[115]
Planetscope satellite constellationEarth imaging2010–presentPlanet Labs487List of Flock satellite types[116]
Rocket Lab (Electron)[note 2]Space Transportation2013–presentRocket Lab30List of Electron launches[117]
StarlinkSatellite Internet Service2016–presentSpaceX3,343[118]
Commercial Lunar Payload ServicesSpace transportation2018–present1Astrobotic Peregrine Lander[119]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ Lockheed Martin sold its interest in ILS to Russian entities in 2006 with ILS continuing as an international entity. Atlas commercial sales reverted to Lockheed Martin via the United Launch Alliance joint venture with Boeing.
  2. ↑ Rocketlab was founded in New Zealand but made the decision to re-domicile itself to the United States in 2013.

References

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  2. ↑ Hambling, David (October 4, 2020). "What would the world do without GPS?". BBC. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  3. ↑ Erwin, Sandra (March 28, 2022). "Biden's 2023 defense budget adds billions for U.S. Space Force". Space News. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
  4. ↑ "Chapter 509 — Commercial Space Launch Activities". United States Code ~ Office of the Law Revision Counsel. U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved December 22, 2016.
  5. ↑ Reagan, Ronald W. (October 30, 1984). "Statement on Signing the Commercial Space Launch Act - October 30, 1984". Internet Archive. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. p. 1688.
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