Bust of Domitian (r. 81–96), who reigned for most of the decade.

The 90s was a decade that ran from January 1, AD 90, to December 31, AD 99.

As the decade began, the Han–Xiongnu War was approaching its end, with the Xiongnu having been on the verge of collapse since the Battle of the Altai Mountains (89) the prior decade. In 90, Dou Xian dispatched General Geng Kui and Shizi of the Southern Xiongnu with 8000 light cavalry to attack the Northern Chanyu, encamped at Heyun (河雲).[1] There, the Han killed 8000 men and captured several thousands.[2] By 91, the last remnants of the Northern Xiongnu had migrated west towards the Ili River valley, ending the war.[3] After the downfall of the Xiongnu, the Xianbei replaced them with a loose confederacy from 93.[4]

The Roman Empire did not see any significant military action this decade, excepting clashes along the Danube in 92. Economically, the empire saw reforms by Nerva after the death of Domitian in 96, including but not limited to a string of economic reforms intended to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most needy Romans.[5] Before long, Nerva's expenses strained the economy of Rome and, although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by Syme,[6] necessitated the formation of a special commission of economy to drastically reduce expenditures.

According to some historians, Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign (89-96).[7] The Book of Revelation, which mentions at least one instance of martyrdom (Rev 2:13; cf. 6:9), is thought by many scholars to have been written during Domitian's reign.[8] According to Barnes, "Melito, Tertullian, and Bruttius stated that Domitian persecuted the Christians. Melito and Bruttius vouchsafe no details, Tertullian only that Domitian soon changed his mind and recalled those whom he had exiled".[9] A minority of the historians have maintained that there was little or no anti-Christian activity during Domitian's time.[10][11][12] The lack of consensus by historians about the extent of persecution during the reign of Domitian derives from the fact that while accounts of persecution exist, these accounts are cursory or their reliability is debated.[9]:35

In AD 92, the Flavian Palace was completed. Josephus wrote Antiquities of the Jews (covering the history of the Jewish people), Against Apion (a defense of Judaism as a classical religion and philosophy against criticism by Apion), and The Life of Flavius Josephus (an autobiographical text where Josephus details his own life). Tacitus wrote Germania (a historical and ethnographic work on the Germanic peoples outside the Roman Empire) and Agricola (which recounts the life of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general and governor of Britain).

Events

By place

Roman Empire
Asia

By topic

Art
Literature
Religion

By place

Roman Empire
Asia

By topic

Art and Science

By place

Roman Empire

By place

Roman Empire
Asia

By topic

Literature

By place

Roman Empire
Asia

By topic

Literature

By place

Roman Empire

By topic

Epidemic
  • In Rome a severe form of malaria appears in the farm districts and will continue for the next 500 years, taking out of cultivation the fertile land of the Campagna, whose market gardens supply the city with fresh products. The fever drives small groups of farmers into the crowded city, bringing the malaria with them, and lowers Rome's live-birth rate while rates elsewhere in the empire are rising.
Religion

By place

Roman Empire

By topic

Art and Science
Religion

By place

Roman Empire
Asia

By topic

Religion

By place

Roman Empire

By topic

Arts and sciences
Commerce
  • The silver content of the Roman denarius rises to 93 percent under emperor Trajan, up from 92 percent under Domitian.

By place

Roman Empire

By topic

Religion
  • 23 November - Pope Evaristus succeeds Pope Clement I as the fifth pope according to Roman Catholic tradition.

Significant people

Births

AD 90

AD 92

AD 94

AD 95

AD 96

AD 99

Deaths

AD 90

AD 91

AD 92

AD 93

AD 95

AD 96

AD 97

AD 98

AD 99

References

  1. Wu 2013, 71–72.
  2. Wu 2013, 71–72.
  3. Yü 1986, 405.
  4. Wyatt 2004, p. 8.
  5. For a complete overview of financial reforms, see Merlin, Alfred (1906). Les Revers Monétaires de l'Empereur Nerva. Paris. Archived from the original (French) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 14 August 2007.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. Sutherland, C.H.V. (1935). "The State of the Imperial Treasury at the Death of Domitian". The Journal of Roman Studies. 25 (2): 150–162. doi:10.2307/296596. JSTOR 296596. S2CID 159663639.
  7. Smallwood, E.M. Classical Philology 51, 1956.
  8. Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament, pp. 805–809. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
  9. 1 2 Barnes 1968.
  10. Merrill, E.T. Essays in Early Christian History (London:Macmillan, 1924).
  11. Willborn, L.L. Biblical Research 29 (1984).
  12. Thompson, L.L. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire (New York: Oxford, 1990).
  13. Ronald Syme, Some Arval brethren (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), pp. 21-24
  14. Henderson, Bernard William (1927). Five Roman Emperors: Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan A.d. 69-117. CUP Archive. p. 166.
  15. Watkin, David (2005). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King Publishing. p. 73. ISBN 9781856694599.
  16. Harte, R. H. (1935). "The Praetorship of the Younger Pliny". Journal of Roman Studies. 25 (1): 51–54. doi:10.2307/296553. ISSN 0075-4358. JSTOR 296553.
  17. Freedman, David Noel, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday, 1997, 1992).
  18. "Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 67". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  19. "Roman Emperors". Roman Emperors (in French). 2023-09-04. Retrieved 2023-09-07.
  20. Martin, Ronald H. (1981). Tacitus. University of California Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-520-04427-2.
  21. Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World History. Mittal Publications. p. 1492.
  22. Hoeh, Herman L. (1969). Compendium of World History. Volume 2, Based on the Frankish Chronicles.
  23. San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. The Other Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-983-9541-88-5.
  24. White, Horace (1912). "Introduction". Appian's Roman History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Loeb Classical Library. pp. vii–xii. ISBN 0-674-99002-1.
  25. Dillon, Michael; Dillon, Michael O. (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Psychology Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2.
  26. "Domitian | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 February 2020.

Works cited

  • Wu, Shu-hui (2013). "Debates and Decision-Making: The Battle of the Altai Mountains (Jinweishan 金微山) in AD 91". Debating War in Chinese History. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-22372-1.
  • Wyatt, James C. Y. (2004). China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
  • Yü, Ying-shih (1986). "Han Foreign Relations". The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. - A.D. 220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.

See also

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