terranean forces, by a very simple consideration. It is certain that during, the enormous periods of time of which the records have been discovered by the geologist, there have always been continents and oceans upon the earth's surface, just as at present, and it is almost equally certain that the proportions of the earth's surface occupied by land and water respectively have not varied very widely from those which now prevail. But, at the same time, it is an equally well-established fact that the denuding forces ever at work upon the earth's surface would have been competent to the removal of existing continents many times over, in the vast periods covered by geological records. Hence we are driven to conclude that the subterranean movements have in past times entirely compensated for the waste produced by the denuding forces ever at work upon our globe. But this is not all. The subterranean forces not only produce upheaval; in a great many cases the evidences of subsidence are as clear and conclusive as are those of upheaval in others. Hence we are driven to conclude that the forces producing upheaval of portions of the earth's crust are sufficient, not only to balance those producing subsidence, but also to compensate for the destructive action of denuding agents upon the land-masses of the globe.

It is only by a careful and attentive study and calculation of the effects produced by the denuding agents at work all around us, aided by an examination of the enormous thicknesses of strata formed by the action of such causes during past geological times, that we are able to form any idea of the reality and vastness of the agents of change which are ever operating to modify the earth's external features. When we have clearly realized the grand effects produced on the surface of the globe by these external forces, through the action of its investing atmosphere and circulating waters, then, and only then, shall we be in a position to estimate the far greater effects resulting from the internal forces, of which the most striking, but not the most important, results are seen in the production of volcanic eruptions and earthquake-shocks.

Another series of facts which serves to convince the geologist of the reality and potency of the forces ever at work within the earth's crust, and the way in which these have operated during past geological periods, is found in the disturbed condition of many of the stratified rock-masses which it is composed. Such stratified rock-masses, it is clear, must have been originally deposited in a position of approximate horizontality; but they arc now often found in inclined and even vertical positions; they are seen to be bent, crumpled, puckered, and folded in the most remarkable manner, and have not unfrequently been broken across by dislocations—"faults"—which have sometimes displaced masses, originally in contact, to the extent of thousands of feet. The slate-rocks of the globe, moreover, bear witness to the fact that strata have been subjected to the action of lateral compression of enormous violence and vast duration; while in the metamorphic rocks we see the effects of still more extreme mechanical strains, which have been in part transformed into chemical action. No one who has not studied the crushed, crumpled, fractured, and altered condition of many of the sedimentary rocks of the globe, can form the faintest idea of the enormous effects of the internal forces which have been in operation within the earth's crust during earlier geological periods. And it is only by such studies as these that we at last learn to regard the earthquake and volcanic phenomena of our globe, not as the grandest and most important effects of these forces, but as their secondary and accidental accompaniments.

From what has been said, it will be seen that mountain-chains may be regarded as cicatrized wounds in the earth's solid crust. A line of weakness first betrays itself at a certain part of the earth's surface by fissures, from which volcanic outbursts take place; and thus the position of the future mountain chain is determined. Next, subsidence during many millions of years permits of the accumulation of the raw materials out of which the mountain-range is to be formed; subsequent earth-movements cause these raw materials to be elaborated into the hardest and most crystalline rock-masses, and place them in elevated and favorable positions; and lastly, denudation sculptures from these hardened rock-masses all the varied mountain forms. Thus the work of mountain-making is not, as was formerly supposed by geologists, the result of a simple upheaving force, but is the outcome of a long and complicated series of operations. The careful study of other mountain chains, especially those of the American Con-