Physicians employing a surgical method. From Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu's Imperial Surgery (1465).

The following is a list of inventions made in the medieval Islamic world, especially during the Islamic Golden Age,[1][2][3][4] as well as in later states of the Age of the Islamic Gunpowders such as the Ottoman and Mughal empires.

The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century.[3][4][5] This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions.

List of inventions

Early caliphates

7th century
An illustrated headpiece from a mid-18th-century collection of ghazals and rubāʻīyāt, from the University of Pennsylvania library's Lawrence J. Schoenberg Collection[6]
8th century
9th century
10th century
  • Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann.
  • Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.[61]
  • Binomial theorem: The first formulation of the binomial theorem and the table of binomial coefficient can be found in a work by Al-Karaji, quoted by Al-Samaw'al in his "al-Bahir".[62][63][64]
  • Cauchy-Riemann Integral: Ibn al-Haytham gave a simple form of this.[13]
  • Decimal fractions: Decimal fractions were first used by Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in the 10th century.[65][66]
  • Experimental scientific method: Expounded and practised by ibn al-Haytham[67]
  • Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the Fatimid caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.[68]
  • Law of cotangents: This was first given by Ibn al-Haytham.[13]
  • Muqarnas: The origin of the muqarnas can be traced back to the mid-tenth century in northeastern Iran and central North Africa,[69] as well as the Mesopotamian region.[70]
  • Pascal's triangle: The Persian mathematician Al-Karaji (953–1029) wrote a now lost book which contained the first description of Pascal's triangle.[71][72][73]
  • Ruffini-Horner Algorithm: Discovered by ibn al-Haytham[13]
  • Sextant and mural instrument: The first known mural sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994.[74]
  • Shale oil extraction: In the 10th century, the Arab physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) described a method of extraction of oil from "some kind of bituminous shale".[75]
  • Snell's law: The law was first accurately described by the Persian scientist Ibn Sahl at the Baghdad court in 984. In the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, ibn Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberrations.[76] According to Jim al-Khalili, the law should be called ibn Sahl's law.[77]
  • Vertical-axle windmill: A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria.[78][79] The first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built in Sistan, Persia as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[80] They may have been constructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment.[81] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[82] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s.[78][79]
11th-12th centuries
13th century
  • Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1.[100] This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names.[101] A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric.[102]
  • Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in Islamic Spain was compiled under Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century.[103] It was described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works.[104]
  • Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle.[103]
  • Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism, Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment".[105]
  • Naker: Arabic nakers were the direct ancestors of most timpani, brought to 13th-century Continental Europe by Crusaders and Saracens.[106]

Al Andalus (Islamic Spain)

9th-12th centuries
14th century
  • Hispano-Moresque ware: This was a style of Islamic pottery created in Arab Spain, after the Moors had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration.[117]
  • Polar-axis sundial: Early sundials were nodus-based with straight hour-lines, indicating unequal hours (also called temporary hours) that varied with the seasons, since every day was divided into twelve equal segments; thus, hours were shorter in winter and longer in summer. The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year was the innovation of Abu'l-Hasan Ibn al-Shatir in 1371, based on earlier developments in trigonometry by Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albategni). Ibn al-Shatir was aware that "using a gnomon that is parallel to the Earth's axis will produce sundials whose hour lines indicate equal hours on any day of the year." His sundial is the oldest polar-axis sundial still in existence. The concept later appeared in Western sundials from at least 1446.[118][119]

Sultanates

12th century
  • Blood measurement device: Created by Al-Jazari[120]
  • Double-acting principle: The principle was used by al-Jazari in his water pumps.[121]
13th century
  • Heliometer: A devise of measuring the diameter of sun was described by Syrian astronomer Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi.[122]
  • Various automatons: Al-Jazari's inventions included automaton peacocks, a hand-washing automaton, and a musical band of automatons.[123][124][125]
  • Camshaft: The camshaft was described by Al-Jazari in 1206. He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, and water clocks such as the castle clock.[126]
  • Candle clock with dial and fastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those of Al-Jazari in 1206.[127] It included a dial to display the time.
  • Crankshaft: Al-Jazari (11361206) is credited with the invention of the crankshaft.[25]:23–24 He described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines.[128] His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft,[129] including both the crank and shaft mechanisms.[130]
  • Crank-slider: Ismail al-Jazari's water pump employed the first known crank-slider mechanism.[131]
  • Cotton gin with worm gear: The worm gear roller gin was invented in the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th to 14th centuries.[132]
  • Design and construction methods: English technology historian Donald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand."[133]
  • Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at Delhi in the Mughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the Delhi Sultanate.[134]
  • Minimising intermittence: The concept of minimising the intermittence is first implied in one of Al-Jazari's saqiya devices, which was to maximise the efficiency of the saqiya.[135]
  • Programmable automaton and drum machine: The earliest programmable automata, and the first programmable drum machine, were invented by Al-Jazari, and described in The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, written in 1206. His programmable musical device featured four automaton musicians, including two drummers, that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. It was a programmable drum machine where pegs (cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[136]
  • Tusi couple: The couple was first proposed by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in his 1247 Tahrir al-Majisti (Commentary on the Almagest) as a solution for the latitudinal motion of the inferior planets. The Tusi couple is explicitly two circles of radii x and 2x in which the circle with the smaller radii rotates inside the Bigger circle. The oscillatory motion be produced by the combined uniform circular motions of two identical circles, one riding on the circumference of the other.
  • Griot: The griot musical tradition originates from the Islamic Mali Empire, where the first professional griot was Balla Fasséké.[137]
  • Segmental gear: A segmental gear is "a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."[138] Professor Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote, "Segmental gears first clearly appear in al-Jazari".[139]
  • Sitar: According to various sources, the sitar was invented by Amir Khusrow, a famous Sufi inventor, poet, and pioneer of Khyal, Tarana and Qawwali, in the Delhi Sultanate.[140][141] Others say that the instrument was brought from Iran and modified for the tastes of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.[141]
14th century

Ottoman Empire

14th century
15th century
  • Coffee: Although there is early historical accounts of coffee consumption ( as qahwa) in Ethiopia, it is not clear whether it was "used" as a beverage.[145] The earliest historical evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia.[146][147] From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa,[148] and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas.[149]
  • Dardanelles Gun: The Dardanelles Gun was designed and cast in bronze in 1434 by Munir Ali. The Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a Royal Navy force appeared and commenced the Dardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with propellant and projectiles, then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment.[150]
  • Iznik pottery: Produced in Ottoman Turkey as early as the 15th century AD.[151] It consists of a body, slip, and glaze, where the body and glaze are "quartz-frit."[152] The "frits" in both cases "are unusual in that they contain lead oxide as well as soda"; the lead oxide would help reduce the thermal expansion coefficient of the ceramic.[153] Microscopic analysis reveals that the material that has been labeled "frit" is "interstitial glass" which serves to connect the quartz particles.[154]
  • Standing army with firearms: The Ottoman military's regularized use of firearms proceeded ahead of the pace of their European counterparts. The Janissaries had been an infantry bodyguard using bows and arrows. During the rule of Sultan Mehmed II they were drilled with firearms and became "the first standing infantry force equipped with firearms in the world."[155]
16th century

Safavid dynasty

The Rothschild Small Silk Medallion Carpet, mid-16th century, Museum of Islamic Art, Doha
15th century
  • Classical Oriental carpet: By the late fifteenth century, the design of Persian carpets changed considerably. Large-format medallions appeared, ornaments began to show elaborate curvilinear designs. Large spirals and tendrils, floral ornaments, depictions of flowers and animals, were often mirrored along the long or short axis of the carpet to obtain harmony and rhythm. The earlier "kufic" border design was replaced by tendrils and arabesques. All these patterns required a more elaborate system of weaving, as compared to weaving straight, rectilinear lines. Likewise, they require artists to create the design, weavers to execute them on the loom, and an efficient way to communicate the artist's ideas to the weaver. Today this is achieved by a template, termed cartoon (Ford, 1981, p. 170[163]). How Safavid manufacturers achieved this, technically, is currently unknown. The result of their work, however, was what Kurt Erdmann termed the "carpet design revolution".[164] Apparently, the new designs were developed first by miniature painters, as they started to appear in book illuminations and on book covers as early as in the fifteenth century. This marks the first time when the "classical" design of Islamic rugs was established.[165]

Mughal Empire

16th century
A detailed portrait of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir holding a globe probably made by Muhammad Saleh Thattvi
  • Hookah or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I (15421605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking tobacco.[166][167][168][169]
  • Metal cylinder rocket: In the 16th century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.[170]
  • Multi-barrel matchlock volley gun: Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi-shot gun. Shirazi's gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.[171] One such gun he developed was a seventeen-barrelled cannon fired with a matchlock.[172]
  • Seamless celestial globe: It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–1590), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams.[173]
17th century

See also

Notes

  1. p. 45, Islamic & European expansion: the forging of a global order, Michael Adas, ed., Temple University Press, 1993, ISBN 1-56639-068-0.
  2. Max Weber & Islam, Toby E. Huff and Wolfgang Schluchter, eds., Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 1-56000-400-2, p. 53
  3. 1 2 George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, pp. 245, 250, 256–57. New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.
  4. 1 2 King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". Isis. 74 (4): 531–55. doi:10.1086/353360. S2CID 144315162.
  5. Hassan, Ahmad Y (1996). "Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century". In Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas (ed.). Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, 1–5 August 1994. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC). pp. 351–99. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
  6. UPenn LJS 44
  7. "Ghazal | Islamic literature". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 13 April 2019.
  8. Tabbaa, Yasser, The transformation of Islamic art during the Sunni revival, I.B.Tauris, 2002, ISBN 1-85043-392-5, ISBN 978-1-85043-392-7, pp. 75-88
  9. Canby, Sheila, Islamic art in detail, US edn., Harvard University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-674-02390-0, ISBN 978-0-674-02390-1, p. 26
  10. See p. 289 of Martin, L. C. (1923), "Surveying and navigational instruments from the historical standpoint", Transactions of the Optical Society, 24 (5): 289–303, Bibcode:1923TrOS...24..289M, doi:10.1088/1475-4878/24/5/302, ISSN 1475-4878.
  11. Berggren, J. Lennart (2007), "Mathematics in Medieval Islam", in Katz, Victor J. (ed.), The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: a Sourcebook, Princeton University Press, p. 519, ISBN 978-0-691-11485-9
  12. Kraus, Paul (1942–1943). Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. ISBN 9783487091150. OCLC 468740510. vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv.
  13. 1 2 3 4 RASHED, ROSHDI; collaboration, in; MORELON, RÉGIS (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. doi:10.4324/9780203329030. ISBN 978-0-203-32903-0.
  14. Pacey, Arnold (1991). Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History. MIT Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-262-66072-3.
  15. Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 781, in (Rashed & Morelon 1996, pp. 751–95)
  16. "ʿūd | musical instrument". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
  17. Kraus, Paul (1942–1943). Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. ISBN 9783487091150. OCLC 468740510. vol. II, p. 1, note 1; Weisser, Ursula (1980). Spies, Otto (ed.). Das "Buch über das Geheimnis der Schöpfung" von Pseudo-Apollonios von Tyana. Berlin: De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110866933. ISBN 978-3-11-086693-3. p. 199. On the dating and historical background of the Sirr al-khalīqa, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. II, pp. 270–303; Weisser 1980, pp. 39–72. On the dating of the writings attributed to Jābir, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv.
  18. Norris, John (2006). "The Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science". Ambix. 53 (1): 43–65. doi:10.1179/174582306X93183. S2CID 97109455.
  19. Mason, Robert B. (1995), "New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World", Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture, Brill Academic Publishers, XII: 1–10, doi:10.2307/1523219, ISBN 90-04-10314-7, JSTOR 1523219.
  20. Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.23
  21. Eldridge, Frank (1980). Wind Machines (2nd ed.). New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. p. 15. ISBN 0-442-26134-9.
  22. Shepherd, William (2011). Electricity Generation Using Wind Power (1 ed.). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p. 4. ISBN 978-981-4304-13-9.
  23. Gandz, S. (1936), "The Sources of Al-Khowārizmī's Algebra", Osiris, 1: 263–277, doi:10.1086/368426, S2CID 60770737, page 263–277: "In a sense, al-Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because al-Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers".
  24. Boyer, Carl B. (1991), A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8, The Arabic Hegemony, p. 229: "It is not certain just what the terms al-jabr and muqabalah mean, but the usual interpretation is similar to that implied in the translation above. The word al-jabr presumably meant something like "restoration" or "completion" and seems to refer to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation; the word muqabalah is said to refer to "reduction" or "balancing" – that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation".
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 Banu Musa (1979), The book of ingenious devices (Kitāb al-ḥiyal), translated by Donald Routledge Hill, Springer, ISBN 90-277-0833-9
  26. Kraus, Paul (1942–1943). Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. ISBN 9783487091150. OCLC 468740510. Vol. II, pp. 41–42. On the dating of the writings attributed to Jābir, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv.
  27. Murray, H. J. R. (1913). A History of Chess (Reissued ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-827403-3.
  28. A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Serjeant (1990), The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, Cambridge University Press, p. 266, ISBN 0-521-32763-6{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine)
  30. Broemeling, Lyle D. (1 November 2011). "An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology". The American Statistician. 65 (4): 255–257. doi:10.1198/tas.2011.10191. S2CID 123537702.
  31. Al-Kadi, Ibrahim A. (1992). "The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions". Cryptologia. 16 (2): 97–126. doi:10.1080/0161-119291866801.
  32. Mayr, Otto (1970). The Origins of Feedback Control. MIT Press. pp. 42–43.
  33. M.M.Sharif (4 November 2015). a_history_of_muslim_philosophy.
  34. Phillip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs  (MacMillan Education Ltd, Tenth Edition, 1970) p: 598
  35. Ten thousand years of pottery, Emmanuel Cooper, University of Pennsylvania Press, 4th ed., 2000, ISBN 0-8122-3554-1, pp. 86–88.
  36. Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (2001), Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences, pages 73-74 Archived 2017-12-09 at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO
  37. Koenig, Harold George (2005). Faith and mental health: religious resources for healing. Templeton Foundation Press. ISBN 1-932031-91-X.
  38. Bilkadi, Zayn. "The Oil Weapons". Saudi Aramco World. 46 (1): 20–27.
  39. Kent, James A.; Bommaraju, Tilak V.; Barnicki, Scott D. (2017). Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 18. ISBN 9783319522876.
  40. Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", Saudi Aramco World, January–February 1995, pp. 20–27.
  41. Bloom, Jonathan M. (2013). The minaret. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748637256. OCLC 856037134.
  42. 1 2 Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49. doi:10.2307/3391092. JSTOR 3391092. S2CID 190524140.
  43. 1 2 Koetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". Mechanism and Machine Theory. Elsevier. 36 (5): 589–603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.
  44. Kapur, Ajay; Carnegie, Dale; Murphy, Jim; Long, Jason (2017). "Loudspeakers Optional: A history of non-loudspeaker-based electroacoustic music". Organised Sound. Cambridge University Press. 22 (2): 195–205. doi:10.1017/S1355771817000103. ISSN 1355-7718.
  45. McGrail, Sean (2004), "Boats of the World", Journal of Navigation, Oxford University Press, 55 (3): 85–6, Bibcode:2002JNav...55..507M, doi:10.1017/S0373463302222018, ISBN 0-19-927186-0, S2CID 129318544
  46. McGrail, Sean (2004), "Boats of the World", Journal of Navigation, Oxford University Press, 55 (3): 316 & 393, Bibcode:2002JNav...55..507M, doi:10.1017/S0373463302222018, ISBN 0-19-927186-0, S2CID 129318544
  47. Micheau, Francoise. "The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East": 992–3. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help), in Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science. Routledge. pp. 985–1007. ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2.
  48. Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding, p. 18, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-567-08969-X
  49. Kennedy, Edward S. (1962). "Review: The Observatory in Islam and Its Place in the General History of the Observatory by Aydin Sayili". Isis. 53 (2): 237–239. doi:10.1086/349558.
  50. Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 1135455961.
  51. David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy", in Christopher Walker (1999), ed., Astronomy before the telescope, p. 167-168. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7.
  52. James E. Lindsay (2005). Daily life in the medieval Islamic world. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-313-32270-9.
  53. Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1): 1-30 [10-1 & 27]
  54. 1 2 Adam Lucas (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, p. 65, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004146490
  55. Finger, Stanley (1994). Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function. Oxford University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-19-514694-3.
  56. Oaks, J (2009). "Polynomials and equations in Arabic algebra". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 63 (2): 169–203. doi:10.1007/s00407-008-0037-7. S2CID 121234840.
  57. Maher, P (1998). "From Al-Jabr to Algebra". Mathematics in School. 27 (4): 14–15.
  58. Mayr, Otto (1970). The Origins of Feedback Control. MIT Press. p. 42.
  59. J. Adamy & A. Flemming (November 2004), "Soft variable-structure controls: a survey" (PDF), Automatica, 40 (11): 1821–1844, doi:10.1016/j.automatica.2004.05.017, archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2021, retrieved 28 August 2019
  60. Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, p. 65, ISBN 90-04-14649-0
  61. Kunitzsch, Paul (2003), "The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered", in J. P. Hogendijk; A. I. Sabra (eds.), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 3–22 (12–13), ISBN 978-0-262-19482-2
  62. "THE BINOMIAL THEOREM : A WIDESPREAD CONCEPT IN MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC MATHEMATICS" (PDF). core.ac.uk. p. 401. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  63. "Taming the unknown. A history of algebra from antiquity to the early ttwentieth century" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society: 727. However, algebra advanced in other respects. Around 1000, al-Karaji stated the binomial theorem
  64. Rashed, R. (30 June 1994). The Development of Arabic Mathematics: Between Arithmetic and Algebra. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 63. ISBN 9780792325659.
  65. Berggren, J. Lennart (2007). "Mathematics in Medieval Islam". The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. p. 518. ISBN 978-0-691-11485-9.
  66. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu'l Hasan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim Al-Uqlidisi", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
  67. "Ibn al Haytham - The First Scientist - Alhazen - Ibn al Haitham - Biography - Bradley Steffens". www.firstscientist.net. Retrieved 24 June 2019.
  68. Bosworth, C. E. (1981). "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?". Journal of Semitic Studies. 26 (1): 229–234. doi:10.1093/jss/26.2.229. We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write whatever he likes. The writer can put it in his sleeve or anywhere he wishes and it will not stain nor will any drop of ink leak out of it. The ink will flow only when there is an intention to write. We are unaware of anyone previously ever constructing (a pen such as this) and an indication of 'penetrating wisdom' to whoever contemplates it and realises its exact significance and purpose. I exclaimed, 'Is this possible?' He replied, 'It is possible if God so wills'.
  69. "Encyclopedia.com | Free Online Encyclopedia". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
  70. Stephennie, Mulder (2014). The Shrines of the 'Alids in Medieval Syria : sunnis, shi'is and the architecture of coexistence. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748645794. OCLC 929836186.
  71. Selin, Helaine (12 March 2008). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 132. ISBN 9781402045592.
  72. The Development of Arabic Mathematics Between Arithmetic and Algebra - R. Rashed "Page 63"
  73. Sidoli, Nathan; Brummelen, Glen Van (30 October 2013). From Alexandria, Through Baghdad: Surveys and Studies in the Ancient Greek and Medieval Islamic Mathematical Sciences in Honor of J.L. Berggren. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 54. ISBN 9783642367366.
  74. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
  75. Forbes, Robert James (1970). A Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings Up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal. Brill Publishers. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1.
  76. Rashed, Roshdi (1990). "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses". Isis. 81 (3): 464–491. doi:10.1086/355456. S2CID 144361526.
  77. Science in a Golden Age - Optics: The True Nature of Light, archived from the original on 13 December 2021, retrieved 19 June 2019
  78. 1 2 Drachmann, A.G. (1961), "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (2): 145–151, Bibcode:1960Cent....7..145R, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1960.tb00263.x.
  79. 1 2 Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.)
  80. Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
  81. Dietrich Lohrmann (199786543). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 77 (1), p. 1-30 (8).
  82. Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine)
  83. Meinert CL, Tonascia S (1986). Clinical trials: design, conduct, and analysis. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-503568-1.
  84. Parker, L. M., "Medieval Traders as International Change Agents: A Comparison with Twentieth Century International Accounting Firms," The Accounting Historians Journal, 16(2) (1989): 107–118.
  85. MEDIEVAL TRADERS AS INTERNATIONAL CHANGE AGENTS: A COMMENT, Michael Scorgie, The Accounting Historians Journal, Vol. 21, No. 1 (June 1994), pp. 137-143
  86. Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P. Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, p. 447–494 [470], Routledge, London and New York:
    "Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam and al-Tūsī, had made the most considerable contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be completely recognized only in the 19th century. In essence their propositions concerning the properties of quadrangles which they considered assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute of obtuse, embodied the first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the elliptic geometries. Their other proposals showed that various geometric statements were equivalent to the Euclidean postulate V. It is extremely important that these scholars established the mutual connection between this postulate and the sum of the angles of a triangle and a quadrangle. By their works on the theory of parallel lines Arab mathematicians directly influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The first European attempt to prove the postulate on parallel lines – made by Witelo, the Polish scientists of the 13th century, while revising Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) – was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs put forward in the 14th century by the Jewish scholar Levi ben Gerson, who lived in southern France, and by the above-mentioned Alfonso from Spain directly border on Ibn al-Haytham's demonstration. Above, we have demonstrated that Pseudo-Tusi's Exposition of Euclid had stimulated both J. Wallis's and G. Saccheri's studies of the theory of parallel lines."
  87. Kriss, Timothy C.; Kriss, Vesna Martich (April 1998). "History of the Operating Microscope: From Magnifying Glass to Micro neurosurgery". Neurosurgery. 42 (4): 899–907. doi:10.1097/00006123-199804000-00116. PMID 9574655.
  88. Letcher, Trevor M. (2017). Wind energy engineering: a handbook for onshore and offshore wind turbines. Academic Press. pp. 127–143. ISBN 978-0128094518. Ibn Bassal (AD 1038–75) of Al Andalus (Andalusia) pioneered the use of a flywheel mechanism in the noria and saqiya to smooth out the delivery of power from the driving device to the driven machine
  89. Ahmad Y Hassan, Flywheel Effect for a Saqiya.
  90. Shabbir, Asad. "The Role of Muslim Mechanical Engineers in Modern Mechanical Engineering Dedicate to12th Century Muslim Mechanical Engineer" (PDF). Islamic Research Foundation International, Inc.
  91. Maillard, Adam P. Fraise, Peter A. Lambert, Jean-Yves (2007). Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. p. 4. ISBN 978-0470755068.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  92. Eder, Michelle (2000), Views of Euclid's Parallel Postulate in Ancient Greece and in Medieval Islam, Rutgers University, retrieved 23 January 2008
  93. Adam Robert, Lucas (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe". Technology and Culture. 46 (1): 1–30 [10]. doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026. S2CID 109564224.
  94. Hassan, Ahmad Y, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering, History of Science and Technology in Islam
  95. Davis, Matthew C.; Griessenauer, Christoph J.; Bosmia, Anand N.; Tubbs, R. Shane; Shoja, Mohammadali M. (1 January 2014). "The naming of the cranial nerves: A historical review". Clinical Anatomy. 27 (1): 14–19. doi:10.1002/ca.22345. ISSN 1098-2353. PMID 24323823. S2CID 15242391.
  96. Wade, N. J. (2006). Perception and Illusion: Historical Perspectives. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 64. ISBN 9780387227238.
  97. Plott, John C. (1984). Global History of Philosophy: The Period of scholasticism (part one). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 460. ISBN 978-0-89581-678-8.
  98. Diana Twede (2005). "The Origins of Paper Based Packaging" (PDF). Conference on Historical Analysis & Research in Marketing Proceedings. 12: 288–300 [289]. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2011. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
  99. Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 62 & 64, ISBN 90-04-14649-0
  100. Bernsted, A.K. (2003), "Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques, London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 25; R.B. Mason and M.S. Tite 1994, The Beginnings of Islamic Stonepaste Technology", Archaeometry, 36 (1): 77–91, doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1994.tb00712.x.
  101. Mason and Tite 1994, 77.
  102. Mason and Tite 1994, 79-80.
  103. 1 2 Mayr, Otto (1970). The Origins of Feedback Control. MIT Press. p. 38.
  104. Silvio A. Bedini (1962), "The Compartmented Cylindrical Clepsydra", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 115–141 (116–118)
  105. "Metabolism: The Physiological Power-Generating Process". pulse.embs.org. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
  106. Bridge, Robert. "Timpani Construction paper" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 April 2006. Retrieved 18 February 2008.
  107. 1 2 Cosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2008). Handbook to Life in the Medieval World. Handbook to Life Series. Vol. 2. Infobase Publishing. pp. 528–530. ISBN 978-0-8160-4887-8.
  108. "Middle East Journal of Anesthesiology". Middle East Journal of Anesthesiology. 4: 86. 1974.
  109. Hunke S (1960). Allahs Sonne über dem Abendland: unser arabisches Erbe (in German) (2 ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. pp. 279–80. ISBN 978-3-596-23543-8. Retrieved 13 September 2010. The science of medicine has gained a great and extremely important discovery and that is the use of general anaesthetics for surgical operations, and how unique, efficient, and merciful for those who tried it the Muslim anaesthetic was. It was quite different from the drinks the Indians, Romans and Greeks were forcing their patients to have for relief of pain. There had been some allegations to credit this discovery to an Italian or to an Alexandrian, but the truth is and history proves that, the art of using the anaesthetic sponge is a pure Muslim technique, which was not known before. The sponge used to be dipped and left in a mixture prepared from cannabis, opium, hyoscyamus and a plant called Zoan.
  110. Butt, Arthur J. (1956). Etiologic Factors in Renal Lithiasis.
  111. Missori, Paolo; Brunetto, Giacoma M.; Domenicucci, Maurizio (2012). "Origin of the Cannula for Tracheotomy During the Middle Ages and Renaissance". World Journal of Surgery. 36 (4): 928–934. doi:10.1007/s00268-012-1435-1. PMID 22311135. S2CID 3121262.
  112. Aschoff, A; Kremer, Paul; Hashemi, Bahram; Kunze, Stefan (1999). "The scientific history of hydrocephalus and its treatment". Neurosurgical Review. 22 (2–3): 67–93. doi:10.1007/s101430050035. PMID 10547004. S2CID 10077885.
  113. Citation error. See inline comment how to fix.
  114. Citation error. See inline comment how to fix.
  115. Citation error. See inline comment how to fix.
  116. Citation error. See inline comment how to fix.
  117. Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.65
  118. "History of the sundial". National Maritime Museum. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007. Retrieved 2 July 2008.
  119. Jones, Lawrence (December 2005). "The Sundial And Geometry". North American Sundial Society. 12 (4).
  120. Howard R. Turner, Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction  (University of Texas Press, 2006) p: 166
  121. Science in a Golden Age - Pioneers of Engineering: Al-Jazari and the Banu Musa, archived from the original on 13 December 2021, retrieved 19 June 2019
  122. History Of Science And Technology In Islam Fuat Sezgin. 2011.
  123. Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49. doi:10.2307/3391092. JSTOR 3391092. S2CID 190524140.
  124. al-Jazari (Islamic artist), Encyclopædia Britannica.
  125. Rosheim, Mark E. (1994). Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics. Wiley-IEEE. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-471-02622-8.
  126. Georges Ifrah (2001). The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quatum Computer, p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See )
  127. Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine)
  128. Ahmad Y Hassan. The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine.
  129. Sally Ganchy, Sarah Gancher (2009), Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology, The Rosen Publishing Group, p. 41, ISBN 978-1-4358-5066-8
  130. Donald Hill (2012), The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, page 273, Springer Science + Business Media
  131. Lotfi Romdhane & Saïd Zeghloul (2010), "al-Jazari (1136–1206)", History of Mechanism and Machine Science, Springer, 7: 1–21, doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2346-9, ISBN 978-90-481-2346-9, ISSN 1875-3442
  132. Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500, p. 53, Pearson Education
  133. Donald Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64-9 (cf. Donald Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 25 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine)
  134. 1 2 Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500, page 53, Pearson Education
  135. Donald Hill, "Engineering", p. 776, in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, pp. 751–795, Routledge, London and New York
  136. Noel Sharkey, A 13th Century Programmable Robot (Archive), University of Sheffield.
  137. Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. Jr (2010). Encyclopedia of African American History [3 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 48. ISBN 9781851097746.
  138. Segment gear, TheFreeDictionary.com
  139. The Automata of Al-Jazari. The Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul. Archived 21 April 2003 at the Wayback Machine
  140. Kapoor, Subodh (2002), The Indian Encyclopaedia, Cosmo Publications, p. 2988, ISBN 9788177552676
  141. 1 2 Swarn Lata (2013), The Journey of the Sitar in Indian Classical Music, iUniverse, p. 24, ISBN 9781475947076
  142. Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500, pp. 53–54, Pearson Education
  143. Lord Kinross (1977). Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 52. ISBN 0-688-08093-6.
  144. Goodwin, Jason (1998). Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire. New York: H. Holt, 59,179-181. ISBN 0-8050-4081-1.
  145. Hattox, Ralph S. (9 July 2014). Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295805498.
  146. Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bonnie K. Bealer (2001), The world of caffeine, Routledge, pp. 3–4, ISBN 978-0-415-92723-9
  147. Ireland, Corydon (15 July 2011). Gazette "Of the bean I sing". Retrieved 21 July 2011. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  148. John K. Francis. "Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE" (PDF). Factsheet of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Retrieved 27 July 2007.
  149. Meyers, Hannah (7 March 2005). ""Suave Molecules of Mocha" -- Coffee, Chemistry, and Civilization". Archived from the original on 9 March 2005. Retrieved 3 February 2007.
  150. Schmidtchen, Volker (1977b), "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstleistungen ihrer Zeit", Technikgeschichte 44 (3): 213–237 (226–228)
  151. Tite, M.S. (1989), "Iznik Pottery: An Investigation of the Methods of Production", Archaeometry, 31 (2): 115–132, doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1989.tb01008.x.
  152. Tite 1989, 120.
  153. Tite 1989, 129.
  154. Tite 1989, 120, 123.
  155. Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Philadelphia: Westview Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0813313597.
  156. Ágoston, Gábor (2008), Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 24, ISBN 978-0521603911
  157. Needham, Joseph (1986), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. V:7: The Gunpowder Epic, Cambridge University Press, pp. 449–452, ISBN 0-521-30358-3
  158. Bowles, Edmund A. (2006), "The impact of Turkish military bands on European court festivals in the 17th and 18th centuries", Early Music, Oxford University Press, 34 (4): 533–60, doi:10.1093/em/cal103, S2CID 159617891
  159. Andrade, Tonio (2016), The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, p. 149, ISBN 978-0-691-13597-7
  160. Fazlıoğlu, İhsan (2014). "Taqī al-Dīn Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zayn al-Dīn Maҁrūf al-Dimashqī al-Ḥanafī". Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer, New York, NY. pp. 2123–2126. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9917-7_1360. ISBN 978-1-4419-9916-0.
  161. Taqi al-Din and the First Steam Turbine, 1551 A.D. Archived 2008-02-18 at the Wayback Machine, web page, accessed on line 23 October 2009; this web page refers to Ahmad Y Hassan (1976), Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, pp. 34-5, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
  162. Ahmad Y. Hassan (1976), Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, p. 34-35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo
  163. Ford, P.R.J. (1981). Oriental Carpet Design (1st ed.). London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. ISBN 9780500276648.
  164. Erdmann, Kurt (1965). Der Orientalische Knüpfteppich. tr. C. G. Ellis as Oriental Carpets: An Essay on Their History, New York, 1960 (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Verlag Ernst Wasmuth. pp. 30–32.
  165. Erdmann, Kurt (1970). Erdmann, Hanna; Beattie (transl.), May H. (eds.). Seven hundred years of Oriental carpets. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520018167.
  166. Razpush, Shahnaz (15 December 2000). "ḠALYĀN". Encyclopedia Iranica. pp. 261–265. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  167. Sivaramakrishnan, V. M. (2001). Tobacco and Areca Nut. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. pp. 4–5. ISBN 81-250-2013-6.
  168. Blechynden, Kathleen (1905). Calcutta, Past and Present. Los Angeles: University of California. p. 215.
  169. Rousselet, Louis (1875). India and Its Native Princes: Travels in Central India and in the Presidencies of Bombay and Bengal. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 290. ISBN 9788120618879.
  170. MughalistanSipahi (19 June 2010). "Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 3". Archived from the original on 13 December 2021. Retrieved 28 November 2012 via YouTube.
  171. Bag, A.K. (2005). "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu". Indian Journal of History of Science. 40 (3): 431–436. ISSN 0019-5235.
  172. Clarence-Smith, William Gervase, Science and technology in early modern Islam, c.1450-c.1850 (PDF), Global Economic History Network, London School of Economics, p. 7
  173. Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC
  • Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously digitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.