Puroik
Sulung
Native toIndia, China
RegionArunachal Pradesh
EthnicityPuroik people
Native speakers
20,000 (2011)[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3suv
Glottologpuro1234
ELPPuroik

The Puroik language (previously called Sulung, a derogatory term, by other tribes) is a possible language isolate spoken by the Puroik people of Arunachal Pradesh in India and of Lhünzê County, Tibet, in China.

Besides their own language, the Puroik also use Nishi, Hindi, and Assamese. Literacy is very low, at about 2%. Those who are literate use either the Bengali script, Devanagari or the Latin alphabet to write Puroik.

Geographical distribution

Remsangpuia (2008:17) listed a limited number of Puroik villages. Currently, Puroik are seen inhabiting the following districts and circles of Arunachal Pradesh. They also live in Nyishi, Aka, and Miji areas.

According to the Ethnologue, Puroik is spoken in 53 villages along the Par River in Arunachal Pradesh.

The Puroik are located from the Upper Subansiri River drainage basin (西巴霞区) to the Tawang River drainage basin (Li 2005).[2] Names include pɯh˧˩ ɣut˥ (autonym) and su˥ loŋ˧ (Bangni exonym). There are about 3,000 Puroik as of 2002, who are classified as ethnic Lhoba by the Chinese government.

Dialects

Lieberherr (2015)[3] consider Puroik to be a dialect chain where geographically distant dialects are mutually unintelligible, whereas dialects located close to each other are mutually intelligible. The internal diversity of Puroik is about equal to that of the Western Kho-Bwa branch.[4] Lieberherr (2015) and Lieberherr & Bodt (2017)[4] list the following dialects of Puroik, provided here in geographical order from east to west.

  • Kurung-Kumey dialect: spoken in Kurung Kumey district, which is located to the east of Chayangtajo. May be most similar to the Puroik dialect described in Li Daqin (2004) and other Chinese sources.
  • Chayangtajo dialect: spoken in Sanchu and neighboring villages of Chayangtajo circle, East Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh, India by a few hundred speakers.
  • Lasumpatte dialect: spoken in Lasumpatte village in Seijosa near the Assam border. Most inhabitants have recently migrated from the Chayangtajo area.
  • Sario-Saria dialect: spoken in three villages by a few hundred speakers.
  • Rawa dialect: spoken in several villages in and around Rawa by a few hundred speakers (located between Chayangtajo and Kojo-Rojo). Also includes Poube village.
  • Kojo-Rojo dialect: spoken in the villages of Kojo and Rojo, and possibly also in Jarkam village (mutually intelligible with the Puroik dialect spoken in other villages in Lada circle).
  • Bulu dialect: spoken only in Bulu village by 7–20 speakers.

Classification

Lieberherr & Bodt (2017)[4] classify Puroik as Kho-Bwa, and has traditionally been considered to be a Sino-Tibetan language. There is some mutual intelligibility with Bugun, and Burling (2003) grouped it with Bugun and Sherdukpen, and possibly with Lish and Sartang.

James A. Matisoff (2009)[5] considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language that has undergone sound changes such as:

Lieberherr (2015)[3] also considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language, although he notes that it has likely borrowed from non-Tibetan-Burman languages. However, Roger Blench (2011) considers Puroik to be a language isolate.[6]

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant phonemes
Labial Dental/Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
plain lateral
Nasal m n ŋ
Plosive/
Affricate
voiceless p k ʔ
aspirated
voiced b ɡ
Fricative voiceless f s ɬ h
voiced v z
Rhotic r
Approximant w ɹ l j

Vowels

Monophthong phonemes
Front Central Back
Close i ɯ u
Mid e ə ɔ
Open a

[7]

Grammar

The Puroik grammar notes here have been adapted primarily from Tayeng (1990).[8]

Number

Number is not considered a grammatical feature in Puroik. Plurality is expressed, when required to be stated clearly by huangda, meaning all, many, etc.

Gender

There is no grammatical gender in Puroik. However the two sexes are distinguished when necessary. To indicate other relatives and persons the suffix -aphu is added for the male and -amua for the female. Demonstrative, and Interrogative.

Case

Seven cases may be distinguished: Subject (Nominative), Object (Accusative), Instrumental, Dative (Purposive), Ablative, Possessive (Genitive), and Locative.

Pronoun

The Personal Pronoun distinguished three persons (the first person, second person, and third person) and two numbers (singular and plural). The same form is used for both genders.

Adjective

There are four types of adjectives: adjective of quality, adjective of quantity, demonstrative adjective, interrogative adjective.

Verb

Puroik verbs do not indicate number and person. The three principal tenses (present, past, and future), including the indefinite and the continuous are indicated by means of particles used as suffixes. There are four moods: Imperative, potential, conditional, and subjunctive. Imperative uses the suffix -bo, -da, and -ge for commands. Potential uses the suffix -pa to express the ability to perform. Conditional uses -re/-hangra to express obligation.

Adverb

Adverbs may be distinguished into four classes: Time, place, manner, and interrogative.

Vocabulary

The following list of 181 words in three Puroik dialects, in addition to Proto-Puroik (the reconstructed proto-language of the Puroik lects), is from Lieberherr (2015: 280–286). Lieberherr (2015)[3] reconstructs Proto-Puroik, drawing data from the Chayangtajo dialect and the newly described Kojo-Rojo and Bulu dialects. Forms from the Rawa and Saria dialects have also been included.[3]

GlossPuroik
(Bulu)
Puroik
(Kojo-Rojo)
Puroik
(Chayangtajo)
Proto-Puroik
1SG (I) guugoogoo*goo
2SG (you, sg.) naa(naŋ)naa*naŋ (?)
3SG (he, she) vɛɛwaiwɛɛ*vai
1PL (we) (g-rii)gə-niig-rei*gə-ńei (?)
2PL (you, pl.) (na-rii)na-niina-rei*na-ńei (?)
1DU (we two) gə-se-niʔ/(gə-he-niʔ)gə-se-niigə-sɛ-nii*gə-se-niʔ (?)
imperfective suffix -na-na-na*-na
pretemporal -ryila-ruila-ruila*-ruila
one [tyi][kjuu][hui]*?
two niʔ(nii)nii*niʔ
three ɨmɻɨmɯk*ɨm̄ (?)
four viiwɻeiwɻei*vɻei
five wuuwoowuu*woo (?)
six rəʔrəʔrək*rək
seven mə-ljɛɛjeiljɛɛ*mə-ljai
eight mə-ljaojau(laa)*mə-ljaa
nine duNgiiduŋgɻeedoŋgɻɛɛ*doŋ-gjee (?)
ten suɛNʃuansuaik*suan̄ (?)
above a-tʃaNa-tʃjaŋa-tʃuaŋ*a-tʃuaŋ (?)
alive a-seNa-səna-sik*a-sen̄
ant (dʒamdʒuʔ)gamgɻuʔgɻɛŋgɻo*gjamgjoʔ
awaken (intr.) ʒaoʒaujaa*jaa
bamboo (edible) ma-bjaomə-bɻaumə-bɻaa*ma-bjaa
before buibuibue*bui
belly (exterior) a-ɬyi-buNhui-buŋa-ɬue-buk*a-ɬui-buŋ̄
belly (interior) a-ɬyia-huia-ɬue*a-ɬui
bird pə-duupə-doopə-dou*pə-dou (?)
bite tɔɔtuatua*tua
bitter a-tʃaʔa-tʃuaʔa-tʃjaa*a-tʃuaʔ (?)
black a-hjɛNa-hjeĩa-hjɛ̃*a-hjaĩ
blow fuufuu(fuk)*fuu
blue a-piia-piia-pii*a-pii
blood a-huia-fuia-hue*a-hui (?)
bone a-zɛNa-zana-zaik*a-zan̄
bow lɨɨleilei*lei (?)
branch a-kjɛɛhɻɨn-kɻeihɻeŋ-kɻɛɛ*kjai
breast (female) a-njɛɛa-njeia-njɛɛ*a-njai
breathe ʒuuʒuujoo*joo
bridge (not hanging) ka-tyiNka-tunka-tuik*ka-tun̄
brother (younger) a-nɔɔa-nuaanua*a-nua
burn (transitive) riiriirii*rii
can muɛNmuanmuaiŋ*muan
cane riireirei*rei
cave wuʔoo*woʔ
chicken [tʃaʔ][takjuu][səkuu]
child a-dəəa-dooa-dou*a-dou (?)
cloth ɛʔaiʔaik (Rawa at)*at
crazy a-bjaoa-bɻaabɻaa-bo*abjaa
cry (tʃɛʔ)tʃaptʃjap*tʃjap (?)
cut (hit with dao) pɛNpanpaik*pan̄
cut (without
leaving the blade)
ii*iʔ
day a-niia-niia-rii*a-ńii
die iiiiii*ii
dig tʃuʔtʃuʔtʃoo*tʃoʔ
do/make [tsaʔ][ʒou][kaik]
door haN-wuiNha-wuntʃuk-wuik*HOUSE-wun̄
down buubuubuu*buu
dream baNbaŋbak*baŋ̄
drink inin[riŋ]*in
dry a-wuɛNa-wuana-wuaik*awuan̄
ear a-kuiNa-kuna-kuik*a-kun̄
eat tʃiitʃiitʃii*tʃii
extinguish (intr.) [gɛʔ]biʔbik (Rawa bit)*bit
existential copula [wɛɛ][wai]wɛɛ
eye a-kəma-kəma-kək*a-kəm̄
fall (from a height) ɬuʔhuʔ (ɬuʔ)ɬjok-lo*ɬuk (?)
fart waiʔwaiwɛɛ*waiʔ
far a-tʃoia-tʃaia-tʃjɛɛ*a-tʃuai (?)
fat/grease a-ʒɔɔa-zjaaa-zua*azua (?)
female/mother a-mɔɔa-muaa-mua*a-mua
fingernail (ageʔ gə-sɨn)gei-singeisik*ge-sin̄
fire bɛɛbaibɛɛ*bai
firewood ʃiNhɻɨnhɻeŋ*sjen (?)
fish [tʃɨi][tʃui][kahuaŋ]
flow nyɛnuairuɛ*ńuai
flower a-buɛNhɻɨn-buanmə-buaik*buan̄
food mə-luɛNmə-luanmə-luaik*mə-luan̄
frog rəʔrəʔrəə*rəʔ
fruit ʃiN-wɛɛhɻɨn-wairoŋ-wɛɛ*wai
full ljɛɛjeiljɛɛ*ljai
full/satiated mɨŋmoŋmoŋ*moŋ
garlic (Allium hookeri) daNdaŋdak*daŋ̄
ghost mə-ɬaomə-hau (mə-ɬau)mə-ɬaa*mə-ɬaa
give taNtaŋtaŋ*taŋ
green a-rjɛɛa-rjeia-rjɛɛ*a-rjai
guts a-ɬyi-rina-hui-rina-ɬue-riŋ*a-ɬui-rin
hair (on body) a-mɨna-məna-muiŋ*a-mun
hair (on head) kə-zaN(kə-zjaŋ)kə-zak*kə-zaŋ̄
hand/arm a-geʔa-geiʔa-geik (Rawa gət)*a-gət
head a-kuNa-kuŋ-bəəa-kok-bəə*akoŋ̄
heart a-luN-bəəa-luŋ-bəəa-lok-bəə*a-loŋ̄-bəə
hold in mouth mom ?mom*mom
husband a-wuia-wuia-wue*a-wui
ill/sick naNnaŋraŋ*ńaŋ
itch ɔɔa-wuaa-wua*a-wua
kill [wɛʔ]aiʔaik (Rawa at)*at
knife (machete) tʃiitʃeetʃee*tʃee (?)
know dɛNdandaik*dan̄
leaf a-ləp(hɻɨn-jəp)a-lək*ljəp
leech [pa-]wɛʔ[pə-]waiʔka-waik (Rawa pəwat)*ka-wat
left side pa-fiipua-fiipua-fee*puafee (?)
leg a-lɛɛa-laia-lɛɛ*lai
lick ljaʔjaavjaa*?
light a-tɔɔa-tuaa-tua*a-tua
listen nɨŋnuŋroŋ*ńoŋ
liver a-pjiNa-pjina-pjik*a-pjin̄
long a-pjaNa-pɻaŋa-pɻaŋ*a-pjaŋ
louse (head) [ʃiʔ][hɻɛ̃][pɻɛɛ]*?
male/father a-pɔɔa-puaa-pua*apua
man a-fuua-fooa-fuu*a-fuu (?)
marrow (a-ɬyiN)a-hina-ɬiŋ*a-ɬin
meat [ʃii][mai][mərjek]*?
monkey (macaque) [məraŋ][səduŋ][məzii]
mortar sətsəmtʃuŋtʃəmtʃjuŋtʃək*tʃuŋ-tʃəm̄
mouth a-səma-səma-sək*a-səm̄
mushroom mɨŋməŋməŋ*məŋ
mute/stupid bloʔbloʔblok*blok
name a-bjɛNa-bɻɛna-bɻɛŋ*a-bjɛn
near a-nyia-nuia-nui*a-nui (?)
neck kə-tuN-rintuŋ-rinkə-tuŋ*kə-tuŋ
negation ba-ba-ba-*ba-
new (of things) a-fɛNa-fana-faik*a-fan̄
night/dark a-tʃeNa-tʃena-tʃik*a-tʃen̄ (?)
nose a-puŋa-puŋa-pok*a-poŋ̄
old (of things) a-tsɛNa-tʃjena-tʃaik*a-tʃjan̄
path limlimlik (Saria dialect)*lim̄
penis a-lɔʔa-luaʔa-lua*a-luaʔ
person [prin]biibii*bii
pig [waʔ][dui][mədou]*?
pillow ka-kəmkoŋ-kəmko-kəm*koŋ̄ -kəm (?)
Puroik (prin-dəə)purunpuruik*purun̄
pull ryiruirue*rui
quiver zəpzəpzək*zəp
ripe a-mina-mina-miŋ*a-min
rot ʃamhɻamhjap*sjam̄ (?)
run rinrenrik*rin̄
sago flour biibee-mobee*bee (?)
sago club (tool) waNwaŋwak*waŋ̄
sago pick (front part) kjuʔkɻuʔkɻok*kjok
scratch bjuʔbɻuʔbɻoo*bjoʔ
sew pinpinpiŋ*pin
shade a-ɬima-hima-ɬəp*a-ɬim̄ (?)
shelf (over fireplace) rapraprak*rap
shoulder pa-tɨŋpua-tuŋpua-tok*pua-toŋ̄
shy bii-wɛNbii-wanbii-waik*biiwan̄
sit [rɨɨ][dʒao][tuŋ]
skin a-kuʔa-kɨʔa-kəə*a-kuʔ (?)
sky ha-mɨŋməŋkə-məŋ*ha/kə-məŋ
sleep rəmrəmrəm*rəm
sleepy rəm-binrəm-binrəm-biŋ*rəm-bin
smell namnamnaŋ*nam
smoke bɛ-kɨɨbai-kəəbɛɛ-kɨɨ*baikɨɨ (?)
son-in-law a-bɔʔbuaʔa-bua*buaʔ
stand tʃintʃintʃiŋ*tʃin
star [haNwaiʔ][hadaŋ][hagaik]
stone ka-lɨŋka-huŋ (ka-ɬuŋ)[kəbɻaa]*ka-ɬuŋ (?)
sun hamiihamiikrii*PFX-ńii
sweet a-pina-pina-piŋ*a-pin
swell pənpənpəik*pən̄
taro tʃjaʔtʃjaʔtʃua*tʃuaʔ
tasty/savory (a-jim)a-rjema-rjep*a-rjem̄
that tɛɛtaitɛɛ*tai
thick (book) a-pəna-pəna-pik*apən̄ (?)
thin (book) a-tsap(a-tʃjam)a-tʃap*a-tʃjam̄
this hɨŋhəŋhəŋ*həŋ
tongue a-lyijui(a-rue)*a-lui (?)
tooth kə-tɔNtuaŋkə-tuaŋ*kə-tuaŋ
thorn mə-zuNmə-ʒuŋkə-zjoŋ*mə/kə-zoŋ
up kuNkuŋkuŋ*kuŋ
Urtica fibres ʃaNhɻaŋhɻak*sjaŋ̄
vomit muɛʔmuaimuɛ*muaiʔ
war mɔʔmuaʔmua*muaʔ
warm a-ləma-ləma-ləp*a-ləm̄
water kɔɔkuakua*kua
weave (on loom) ɛʔ-rɔʔai-ruaʔaikrua*at-ruaʔ
wet a-ʃama-hɻama-hjap*a-hjam̄ (?)
what hɛɛhai[hii]
white a-rjuNa-rjuŋa-rjuŋ*a-rjuŋ
wife a-ʒuua-zjooa-zou*a-zjoo (?)
wing a-ʒuiNa-ʒuna-juik*a-jun̄
woman [məruu]a-muia-mui*a-mui

References

  1. Puroik at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. Li Daqin [李大勤]. 2005. "A sketch of Sulung" [苏龙语概况]. Minzu Yuwen 2005:1.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Lieberherr, Ismael. 2015. A progress report on the historical phonology and affiliation of Puroik. North East Indian Linguistics (NEIL), 7. Canberra, Australian National University: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access.
  4. 1 2 3 Lieberherr, Ismael; Bodt, Timotheus Adrianus. 2017. Sub-grouping Kho-Bwa based on shared core vocabulary. In Himalayan Linguistics, 16(2).
  5. Matisoff, James A. (2009). "Stable Roots in Sino-Tibetan/Tibeto-Burman" (PDF). Senri Ethnological Studies. 75 (291–318).
  6. Blench, Roger. 2011. (De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconsidering the evidence Archived 2013-05-26 at the Wayback Machine
  7. Remsangpuia (2008). Puroik phonology. Shillong: Don Bosco Centre for Indigenous Cultures.
  8. Tayeng, Aduk. 1990. Sulung language guide. Shillong: The Director of Information and Public Relations, Arunachal Pradesh
  • Deuri, R.K. 1982. The Sulungs. Shillong: Government of Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Remsangphuia. 2008. Puroik phonology. Shillong: Don Bosco Technical School.
  • Li Daqin [李大勤]. 2004. A study of Sulung [苏龙语研究]. Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House.
  • Lieberherr, Ismael. 2015. A progress report on the historical phonology and affiliation of Puroik. In Linda Konnerth and Stephen Morey and Priyankoo Sarmah and Amos Teo (eds.), North East Indian Linguistics (NEIL) 7, 235–286. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics Open Access.

Further reading

  • Pertin, David. 2005. "The Puroiks (Sulungs) of Arunachal Pradesh." In Primitive Tribes in Contemporary India: Concept, Ethnography and Demography 1, edited by Sarit Kumar Chaudhuri and Sucheta Sen Chaudhuri, 367–378. New Delhi: Mittal.
  • Dutta, Sristidhar, and Tana Showren. 2008. "A Case Study of the Sulungs (Puroiks)." In: Blisters on their feet: tales of internally displaced persons in India's North East, edited by Samir Kumar Das, 59–68. Los Angeles and New Delhi: Sage.
  • Lieberherr, Ismael. 2017. Grammar of Bulu Puroik. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bern.
  • Stonor, C. R. (1952). The Sulung Tribe of the Assam Himalayas. Anthropos, (5/6), 947. doi:10.2307/41104369
  • Tayeng, Aduk. 1990. Sulung language guide. Shillong: The Director of Information and Public Relations, Arunachal Pradesh.
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