Islam in the United Kingdom
The Bradford Grand Mosque is the largest mosque by capacity in the United Kingdom, and the largest in Yorkshire and The Humber.
Total population
  • 3,868,133 (2021)[1]
  • 6.5% of the total population
  • (Figures for England and Wales only)
Regions with significant populations
Greater London1,318,754
West Midlands569,963
North West England563,105
Yorkshire and the Humber442,533
Religions
Majority Sunni Islam with sizeable Shia and Ahmadiyya minorities
Languages
English, Punjabi, Sindhi, Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Arabic, Turkish, Somali, Persian[2]
Islam in Europe
by percentage of country population[3]
  90–100%
  70–90%
  50–70%
Bosnia and Herzegovina
  30–40%
North Macedonia
  10–20%
  5–10%
  4–5%
  2–4%
  1–2%
  < 1%

Islam is the second-largest religion in the United Kingdom, with results from the 2011 Census giving the population as 4.4% of the total UK population,[4] while results from the 2021 Census recorded a population of 6.5% in England and Wales.[5][6] London has the greatest population of Muslims in the country.[7][8][9] The vast majority of Muslims in the United Kingdom adhere to Sunni Islam,[10] while smaller numbers are associated with Shia Islam.

During the Middle Ages, there was some general cultural exchange between Christendom and the Islamic world. Nonetheless, there were no Muslims in the British Isles; however, a few Crusaders did convert in the East, such as Robert of St. Albans. During the Elizabethan age, contacts became more explicit as the Tudors made alliances against Catholic Habsburg Spain, including with Morocco and the Ottoman Empire. As the British Empire grew, particularly in India, Britain came to rule territories with many Muslim inhabitants; some of these, known as the lascars, are known to have settled in Britain from the mid-18th century onwards. In the 19th century, Victorian Orientalism spurred an interest in Islam and some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam. Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, and a convert to Islam, provided the first complete English-language translation of the Qur'an by a British Muslim in 1930.

Under the British Indian Army, a significant number of Muslims fought for the United Kingdom during the First and the Second World Wars (a number of whom were awarded the Victoria Cross, Britain's highest honour). In the decades following the latter conflict and the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims (from what is today Bangladesh, India and Pakistan) settled in Britain itself. To this day, British Asians constitute the majority of Muslims in Britain in terms of ethnicity,[11][12] although there are significant Turkish, Arab and Somali communities, as well as up to 100,000 British converts of multiple ethnic backgrounds.[13] Islam is the second largest religion in the United Kingdom and its adherents have the lowest average age out of all the major religious groups.[14] Between 2001 and 2009, the Muslim population increased almost 10 times faster than the non-Muslim population.[15]

History

Early history

Although Islam is generally thought of as a recent arrival in the UK, Muslims have been trading and exchanging ideas with the British for centuries.

A mancus/gold dinar of king Offa, copied from the dinars of the Abbasid Caliphate (774); it includes the Arabic text "Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah", a line from the Shahada.

The earliest evidence of Islamic influence in England dates to the 8th century, when Offa, the Anglo-Saxon king of Mercia, minted a coin with an Arabic inscription, largely a copy of coins issued by a contemporary Abbasid ruler, Caliph Al-Mansur.[16] In the 16th century, Muslims from North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia were present in London, working in a range of roles, from diplomats and translators to merchants and musicians.[17]

Interactions under British Empire

Bengali Muslim diplomat I'tisam-ud-Din was the first educated South Asian to have travelled to the United Kingdom in 1765.

Bengal was annexed by the East India Company from the quasi-independent Nawabs of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The manufactured goods produced in Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain,[18][19][20][21] with the textiles produced in Bengal being used to support British industries such as textile manufacturing, aided by the invention of devices such as the spinning jenny.[18][19][20] With the establishment of Crown control in India after 1857, the British Empire came to rule over a large Muslim population.[22][23][24] The first educated South Asian to travel to Europe and live in Britain was I'tisam-ud-Din, a Bengali Muslim cleric, munshi and diplomat to the Mughal Empire who arrived in 1765 with his servant Muhammad Muqim during the reign of King George III.[25] He wrote of his experiences and travels in his Persian book, Shigurf-nama-i-Wilayat (or 'Wonder Book of Europe').[26]

In South Asia, specifically, the British ruled over one of the largest Muslim populations in the world. Upon coming into contact with such a population, the British authorities forged a uniquely Muslim identity for the local believers. This was, in part, due to the way British historians periodized South Asian history into an "ancient" Hindu one and a "medieval" Muslim one. Under the system, the colonial period was classified as "modern".[27] Debate rages on concerning the utility and legitimacy of these labels themselves. Problems with these labels range from the connotations coupled with the word 'medieval' to the implications related to labelling the colonial era as "modern". The term medieval itself is quite controversial. Historians writing in journals relating to the time period have asked whether the term is a "tyrannous construct" or an "alien conceptual hegemony".[27] This is because the label was originally developed during the study of European history to mark the period in between the fall of the Roman Empire and the fall of Constantinople.

Such classifications done by British historians throughout their long period of rule paved the way for a more cohesive Muslim identity. In the eighteenth century, this seemed unlikely. Muslims who hailed from Afghan, Turk, Persian, or Arab roots did not find their Muslim identities especially salient. Mughal courts divided not into Hindu or Muslim factions but Persian and Turkish ones. Converts to the religion outside of courtly life, the majority of the Muslim population in the Subcontinent, too were more focused on their regional and lingual cultural identities-whether that be Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, or Gujarati.[28]

The first group of Muslims to come to Great Britain in significant numbers, in the 18th century, were lascars (sailors) recruited from the Indian subcontinent, largely from the Bengal region, to work for the East India Company on British ships, some of whom settled down and took local wives.[29] Due to the majority being lascars, the earliest Muslim communities were found in port towns. Naval cooks also came, many of them from the Sylhet district of British Bengal (now in Bangladesh). One of the most famous early Asian immigrants to England was the Bengali Muslim entrepreneur Sake Dean Mahomet, a captain of the East India Company who in 1810 founded London's first Indian restaurant, the Hindoostanee Coffee House.[30]

Between 1803 and 1813, there were more than 10,000 lascars from the Indian subcontinent visiting British port cities and towns.[31] By 1842, 3,000 lascars visited the UK annually, and by 1855, 12,000 lascars were arriving annually in British ports. In 1873, 3,271 lascars arrived in Britain.[32] Throughout the early 19th century lascars visited Britain at a rate of 1,000 every year,[31] which increased to a rate of 10,000 to 12,000 every year throughout the late 19th century.[33][34] A prominent English convert of the 19th century was Henry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley, who became a Muslim in 1862. Although not a convert himself, the Victorian Age adventurer, Sir Richard Francis Burton visited Mecca in disguise, documented in The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night. At the beginning of World War I, there were 51,616 South Asian lascars working on British ships, the majority of whom were of Bengali descent.[35] In 1932, the Indian National Congress survey of 'all Indians outside India' (which included modern Pakistani and Bangladeshi territories) estimated that there were 7,128 Indians living in the United Kingdom.

By 1911, the British Empire had a Muslim population of 94 million, larger than the empire's 58 million Christian population.[24] By the 1920s, the British Empire included roughly half of the world's Muslim population.[23] More than 400,000 Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army fought for Britain during World War I, where 62,060 were killed in action.[36] Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army later fought for Britain against the Nazis in World War II,[37] where Muslim soldiers accounted for up to 40%[38] of the 2.5 million troops serving the British Indian Army.[39] David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922, stated: "we are the greatest Mahomedan power in the world and one-fourth of the population of the British Empire is Mahomedan. There have been no more loyal adherents to the throne and no more effective and loyal supporters of the Empire in its hour of trial." This statement was later reiterated by Gandhi in 1920.[22] Winston Churchill also stated in 1942: "We must not on any account break with the Moslems, who represent a hundred million people, and the main army elements on which we must rely for the immediate fighting."[38]

Marmaduke Pickthall authored an English language translation of the Qur'an in 1930.

The Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking was the first purpose-built mosque in Britain, and was built in 1889. In the same year, Abdullah Quilliam installed a mosque in a terrace in Liverpool, which became the Liverpool Muslim Institute.[40][41] The first mosque in London was the Fazl Mosque, established in 1924, commonly called the London mosque.

Quran translators Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall, who authored The Meaning of the Glorious Koran: An Explanatory Translation in 1930, were both trustees of the Shah Jehan Mosque in Woking and the East London Mosque.[42][43]

Other aristocratic British converts included Sir Archibald Hamilton, 5th Baronet, Rowland Allanson-Winn, 5th Baron Headley, St John Philby and Zainab Cobbold (the first Muslim woman born in Britain to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca).

Immigration and post-World War II

Muslims during an Eid al-Fitr feast at the East London Mosque in 1941

Large-scale immigration of Muslims to Britain began after World War II, as a result of the destruction and labour shortages caused by the war.[44][45] Muslim migrants from former British colonies, predominantly India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,[44] were recruited in large numbers by government and businesses to rebuild the country.[46] Large numbers of doctors recruited from India and Pakistan, encouraged by health minister Enoch Powell in the early 1960s, also played a key role in the establishment of the National Health Service.[47]

British Asians (both Muslim and non-Muslim) faced increased discrimination following Powell's Rivers of Blood speech and the establishment of the National Front in the late 1960s. This included overt racism in the form of "Paki bashing", predominantly from white power skinheads, the National Front, and the British National Party, throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[48] Drawing inspiration from the civil rights movement, the black power movement, and the anti-apartheid movement, young British Pakistani and British Bangladeshi activists began a number of anti-racist Asian youth movements in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Bradford Youth Movement in 1977, the Bangladeshi Youth Movement following the murder of Altab Ali in 1978, and the Newham Youth Movement following the murder of Akhtar Ali Baig in 1980.[49]

The majority of mosques founded after World War II in Britain are reflective of the major strands of Sunni Islam predominating in the Indian subcontinent; namely Deobandi and Barelvi (the latter of which is more Sufi-orientated). There are also a smaller number of Salafi-oriented mosques, inspired by Abul A'la Maududi and Jamaat-e-Islami, are representative of the Arab mainstream or are associated with the UK Turkish Islamic Trust. In addition to this there are Twelver Shia Mosques. The Murabitun World Movement founded by Abdalqadir as-Sufi (born Ian Dallas) in 1968 is a branch of the Sufi Darqawi-Shadhili-Qadiri tariqa which was run out of Achnagairn in the Scottish Highlands.

Martin Lings, an English Muslim scholar, published a significant biography of the Prophet Muhammad in 1983 entitled Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. The publication of Salman Rushdie's novel The Satanic Verses in 1988 caused major controversy. A number of Muslims in Britain condemned the book for blasphemy. On 2 December 1988, the book was publicly burned at a demonstration in Bolton attended by 7,000 Muslims, followed by a similar demonstration and book-burning in Bradford on 14 January 1989.[50] The growing number of Muslims resulted in the establishment of more than 1,500 mosques by 2007.[51]

Demographics

The Muslim population of England and Wales has grown consistently since World War II. Sophie Gilliat-Ray attributes the recent growth to "recent immigration, the higher than average birth rate, some conversion to Islam".[52]

According to the 2021 United Kingdom census, Muslims in England and Wales numbered 3,868,133, or 6.5% of the population.[53]

Census YearNumber of MuslimsPopulation of England and WalesMuslim (% of population)Registered mosquesMuslims per mosque
196150,00046,196,0000.11[54]77,143
1971226,00049,152,0000.46[54]307,533
1981553,00049,634,0001.11[54]1493,711
1991950,00051,099,0001.86[54]4432,144
20011,600,00052,042,0003.07[54]6142,606
20112,706,00056,076,0004.83[55]1,5001,912
20213,868,13359,597,5426.5[53]
Muslim population of England and Wales
YearPop.±%
1961 50,000[54]    
1971 226,000[54]+352.0%
1981 553,000[54]+144.7%
1991 950,000[54]+71.8%
2001 1,600,000[54]+68.4%
2011 2,706,066[55]+69.1%
2021 3,868,133[56]+42.9%
Muslim population in English local authority areas, 2011
  0.0%–0.9%
  1%–1.9%
  2%–4.9%
  5%–9.9%
  10%–19.9%
  20% and more

According to a 2017 projection the Muslim population in the UK in the year 2050 is likely to number around 13 million.[57]

Ethnic composition of British Muslims (2011 census)[55]
Muslim population pyramid in 2021 in England and Wales

The top 20 local authorities in England and Wales with the highest percentage of Muslims in 2021[58][59] were:

Several large cities have one area that is a majority Muslim even if the rest of the city has a fairly small Muslim population. In addition, it is possible to find small areas that are almost entirely Muslim: for example, Savile Town in Dewsbury.[60]

Initial limited mosque availability meant that prayers were conducted in small rooms of council flats until the 1980s when more and larger facilities became available. Some synagogues and community buildings were turned into mosques and existing mosques began to expand their buildings. This process has continued down to the present day with the East London Mosque recently expanding into a large former car park where the London Muslim Centre is now used for prayers, recreational facilities and housing.[61][62] Most people regard themselves as part of the ummah, and their identity is based on their religion rather than their ethnic group.[63]

The 2001 census recorded that there were 179,733 Muslims who described themselves as 'white'. 65% of white Muslims described themselves as "other white", and would likely have originated from locations such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Adygea, Chechnya, Albania, Turkey, Bulgaria, the region of East Macedonia and Thrace in Northern Greece, and North Macedonia. The remainder of white Muslims are converts and mostly identified themselves as White British and White Irish.

Islam is the third-largest religious group of British Indian people, after Hinduism and Sikhism.[64] 8% of UK Muslims are of Indian descent, principally those whose origins are in Gujarat, West Bengal, Telangana and Kerala. Gujarati Muslims from the Surat and Bharuch districts started to arrive from the 1940s when India was under British colonial rule, settling in the towns of Dewsbury and Batley in Yorkshire and in parts of Lancashire.

South Asian

Pakistanis

The single largest group of Muslims in the United Kingdom are of Pakistani descent. Pakistanis were one of the first South Asian Muslim communities to permanently settle in the United Kingdom, arriving in England first in the late 1940s. Immigration from Mirpur in Pakistan grew from the late 1950s, accompanied by immigration from other parts of Pakistan especially from Punjab, particularly from the surrounding Punjab villages of Faisalabad, Sahiwal, Sialkot, Jhelum, Gujar Khan and Gujarat, in addition to from the north-west Punjab including the chhachhi Pathans and Pashtuns from Attock District, and some from villages of Ghazi, Nowshera and Peshawar. There is also a fairly large Punjabi community from East Africa found in London. People of Pakistani extraction are particularly notable in West Midlands, West Yorkshire, London, Lancashire/Greater Manchester and several industrial towns such as Luton, Slough and High Wycombe in the Home Counties. There are smaller numbers of Sindhis in Greater London. Pakistanis were traditionally working class but are slowly progressing into a Metropolitan middle class; they continue to face social integration issues.

Bangladeshis

The East London Mosque was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan.[65]

People of Bangladeshi descent are the second largest Muslim community (after Pakistanis), 15% of Muslims in England and Wales are of Bangladeshi descent, one of the ethnic groups in the UK with the largest proportion of people following a single religion, being 92% Muslim.[66] The majority of these Muslims come from the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh. Many mosques opened by the British Bangladeshi community are often named after Shah Jalal and other Sufi saints who took part in the Islamic conquest of Sylhet in 1303. British Bangladeshi Muslims are mainly concentrated in London (Tower Hamlets and Newham), Luton, Birmingham and Oldham. The Bangladeshi Muslim community in London forms 24% of the Muslim population, larger than any other ethnic group.[67] Other smaller Bangladeshi Muslim communities are present in Newcastle upon Tyne, Bradford, Manchester, Sunderland, Portsmouth, and Rochdale.

There are groups which are active throughout Bangladeshi communities such as The Young Muslim Organisation. It is connected to the Islamic Forum Europe, associated with the East London Mosque and the London Muslim Centre – all of which have connections with the Bangladeshi political party, the Jamaat-e-Islami. Other large groups include another Sunni movement, the Fultoli (founded in Sylhet),[68] and the Tablighi Jamaat – which is a missionary and revival movement,[69] and avoids political attention. The Hizb ut-Tahrir calls for the Khilafah (caliphate) and influences by publishing annual magazines, and lectures through mainly political concepts,[70] and the other which is a movement within Sunni Islam is the Salafi – who view the teachings of the first generations after Muhammed as the correct teachings,[71] and appeals to younger Muslims as a way to differentiate themselves towards their elders.[61][72] All these groups work to stimulate Islamic identity among local Bengalis or Muslims and particularly focus on the younger members of the communities.[62][73][74] The British Bangladeshi community has held a strong point in Islam, often opening large mosques such as East London Mosque and Brick Lane Masjid, as well as opening madrassas and Islamic TV channels.

Indians

There are large numbers of Gujarati Muslims in Dewsbury, Blackburn (including Darwen), Bolton, Preston, Nottingham, Leicester, Nuneaton, Gloucester and London (Newham, Waltham Forest and Hackney).

Middle Eastern

Turks

A Turkish girl in London.

Turks in the United Kingdom represent a unique community in the country because they have emigrated not only from the Republic of Turkey but also from other former Ottoman regions; in fact, the majority of British Turks are Turkish Cypriots who migrated from the island of Cyprus from the British colonial period onwards. The second largest Turkish community descend from Turkey. There has also been ethnic Turkish migration waves from Arabic-speaking countries (such as Iraq[75] and Syria) as well as the Balkans (including Bulgaria,[76] Greece,[77] and Romania).[76] A report published by the Home Affairs Committee in 2011 claimed that there was 500,000 British Turks,[76] made up of approximately 150,000 Turkish nationals, 300,000 Turkish Cypriots, and the remainder from other countries.[78] As of 2013, there was a growing number of ethnic Turks from the modern diaspora in Western Europe; for example, Turks with German and Dutch citizenship (i.e. Turkish Germans and Turkish Dutch) had also immigrated to Britain in accordance with the freedom of movement under EU law.[79]

Turkish Cypriots first began to migrate to the United Kingdom in 1917.[80] At the time, the British Empire had already annexed Cyprus and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. Migration continued through the 1920s;[81] during the Second World War, the number of Turkish-run cafes increased from 20 in 1939 to 200 in 1945 – creating a demand for more Turkish Cypriot workers.[82] However, due to the Cyprus conflict, many Turkish Cypriots began to leave the island for political reasons in the 1950s,[83] with the numbers increasing significantly after the intercommunal violence of late 1963. With the subsequent division of the island in 1974 (followed by the declaration of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983) an economic embargo against the Turkish Cypriots by the Greek Cypriot controlled Republic of Cyprus, caused a further 130,000 Turkish Cypriots to leave the Island for the United Kingdom.[84][85]

Migrant workers from the Republic of Turkey began to arrive in large numbers in the 1970s, followed by their family members in the late 1970s and 1980s.[86] Many of these workers were recruited by Turkish Cypriots who had already established businesses such as restaurants.[87] These workers were required to renew their work permits every year until they became residents after living in the country for five years.[86] By the 1980s, intellectuals, including students, and highly educated professionals arrived in the country, most of which received support from the Turkish Cypriot community.[88] Mainland Turks settled in similar areas of London in which the Turkish Cypriots lived in; however, many have also moved to the outer districts, such as Essex.[86]

The Turkish community have established several mosques in the country. The first was Shacklewell Lane Mosque, established by the Turkish Cypriot community in 1977.[89] There are numerous other Turkish mosques in London, mainly in Hackney, including the Aziziye Mosque[90] and Suleymaniye Mosque.[91] Notable Turkish mosques outside London include Selimiye Mosque in Manchester, Hamidiye Mosque in Leicester, and Osmaniye Mosque in Stoke-on-Trent.[92]

Turks from the same districts from their homeland tend to congregate in the same quarters in the UK.[93] The majority live in capital city of London, particularly in Hackney, Haringey, Enfield, Lewisham, Lambeth, Southwark, Croydon, Islington, Kensington, Waltham Forest, and Wood Green.[94][95] Outside London there are smaller Turkish communities in Birmingham, Hertfordshire, Luton, Manchester, Sheffield and the East Midlands.

Kurds

The UK has a significant Iraqi Kurdish population. Academic sources indicate that 65–70% of people originating from Iraq are Kurdish Iraqis.[96] Nearly all Iraqi Kurds are Muslims.[97][98]

According to the Department for Communities and Local Government, the Iraqi Kurds make up the largest group of Kurds in the country, exceeding the numbers from Turkey and Iran.[99]

Arabs

People of Arab origin in Britain are the descendants of Arab immigrants to Britain from a variety of Arab states, including Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt and Palestine. Most British Arabs are Sunni Muslim, although some – such as those of Iraqi and Lebanese origin – are Shi'ite. The main Arab Muslim communities in the UK live in the Greater London area, with smaller numbers living in Manchester, Liverpool, and Birmingham. There are also sizable and very long-established communities of Muslim Yemenis in the United Kingdom in among other places Cardiff and the South Shields area near Newcastle.

The 2001 UK Census recorded 32,236 Iraqi-born residents,[100] and the Office for National Statistics estimates that, as of 2009, this figure had risen to around 65,000.[101] According to estimates by the Iraqi embassy, the Iraqi population in the UK is around 350,000–450,000.[102]

African

Maghrebis

Although data is short, findings indicate Maghrebis make up a substantial community in Europe and the United Kingdom. Britain has long ties with Maghrebis, through contact with the Maghrebis. Nevertheless, Britain has a far lower count of Maghrebis in comparison to France, the Netherlands and Spain, where the majority of Muslims are Maghrebi.[103]

Nigerians

A 2009 government paper estimated the Nigerian Muslim community at 12,000 to 14,000 people.[104] The community is concentrated in London.

Nigerian Muslims in the UK are represented by several community organizations including the Nigeria Muslim Forum.[105]

Somalis

Somali women at a Somali community gathering event in London

The United Kingdom, with 43,532 Somalia-born residents in 2001,[106] and an estimated 101,000 in 2008,[107] is home to the largest Somali community in Europe. A 2009 estimate by Somali community organisations puts the Somali population figure at 90,000 residents.[108] The first Somali immigrants were seamen and traders who arrived in small numbers in port cities in the late 19th century, although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals. Further more Somali European such as from Holland or Denmark have been emigrating in recent years.[108] Established Somali communities are found in Bristol, Cardiff, Liverpool and London, and newer ones have formed in Leicester, Manchester and Sheffield.[109][110][111][112]

White European

The history of native British Muslims has a long presence in the country. The earliest Englishman to convert to Islam was John Nelson of the 16th century. Thomas Keith was a Scottish soldier who converted to Islam and became the governor of Medina.[113] Abdullah Quilliam was a 19th-century Englishman who converted to Islam and built what is argued to be the first mosque in the country in Liverpool. He was known locally for his work advocating trade unionism and divorce law reform and persuaded more people in Liverpool to convert but they faced abuse from the wider society.[114]

Branches

Demographics of British Muslims (JPR), 2017[115]
Non-denominational Sunni
51.1%
Other Sunni
14.1%
Shia
5.0%
Barelvi
4.5%
Salafi
3.8%
Deobandi
3.1%
Ahmadiyya
1.0%
Other form of Islam
19.0%

An August 2017 survey by the Bertelsmann Stiftung foundation found that among British Muslims, 75% were Sunni and 8% were Shia.[116] A September 2017 survey by the Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR) found that among British Muslims, 77% were Sunni, 5% were Shia, 1% were Ahmadiyya, and 4% were members of other denominations. 14% of British Muslims said they did not know or refused to answer the survey.[117]

The denominational or theme breakdown of mosques and prayer rooms in the UK in 2017 with a sum total of more than 5% were as follows: 41.2% Deobandi, 23.7% Barelvi, 9.4% Salafi, and 5.9% Shia (Twelver, Bohra, Ismaili). 7.4% were non-denominational prayer rooms.[118]

Sunni

In 2015, The Economist stated that were 2.3 million Sunnis in the UK.[119]

Among British Sunnis in 2017, 66.7% were just non-denominational Sunni, 5.9% were Barelvi, 5.0% were Salafis, 4.1% were Deobandi, and 18.3% adhered to another Sunni Islam denomination.[120]

The majority of British mosques are Sunni, including Deobandi, Barelvis and Salafi. In 2010 the affiliation of the mosques was: 44.6% Deobandi, 28.2% Barelvi and other Sufi, 5.8% Salafi, 2.8% Maudoodi-inspired; of the remainder many were part of other Sunni traditions or unaffiliated, while 4.2% were Shi'a (4%). The majority of mosque managers are of Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin, with many Gujarati, and fewer Arab, Turkish and Somali managed entities.[121]

Shia

In 2015, The Economist stated that were 400,000 Shias in the UK.[119]

Shia mosques are usually Twelvers but also cater for Zaydis and the 50,000-strong Ismaili community;[122] they usually include facilities for women. Various Shia mosques include the Husseini Islamic Centre in Stanmore, Harrow which acts as one of the main Shia Muslim mosques in Britain as well as Masjid-e-Ali in Luton, one of the largest Imam Bargah/community centres in the UK. Others include Al Masjid ul Husseini in Northolt, Ealing, and Imam Khoei Islamic Centre in Queens Park, Brent. Across the country Manchester, Birmingham and London have the most Shia residents.

Ahmadiyyat

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community (AMC) established itself in the UK in 1912 and is thus the longest-standing Muslim community in the UK. The UK and worldwide headquarters of the AMC are currently situated on the grounds of 'The Blessed Mosque' (Masjid Mubarak), inaugurated on 17 May 2019 by Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the fifth caliph of the Ahmadiyya movement,[123] in Tilford, Surrey. The AMC also has the largest Muslim youth organisation, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Youth Association (Majlis Khuddamul Ahmadiyya) in the UK (membership of 7,500) and the largest Muslim women's organisation, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Women's Association (Lajna Ima'illah), in the UK (membership of 10,000).[124]

Sectarian relations

There has also been discrimination by orthodox Sunni Muslims against Ahmadi Muslims. In 2014, on the 125 anniversary of the establishment of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, the Community published an advertisement in the Luton on Sunday. Following a written complaint from Dr Fiaz Hussain, co-ordinator of the Preservation of Finality of Prophethood Forum (PFPF), stating that the Ahmadiyya community should not be called "Muslim" because it rejected some of the basic principles of Islam,[125] the paper received a delegation of 'Community Leaders' and shortly afterwards printed an apology disassociating itself from the Ahmadiyya advertisement.[126] Tell MAMA responded by identifying attempts to intimidate or discriminate against Ahmadiyya Muslims "as anti-Muslim in nature".[127]

Society

Economics

In a 2010 aggregate study published by the Government Equalities Office, Muslims in the United Kingdom had the lowest median hourly salary and held the least wealth amongst religious groups. They also held the lowest employment rates amongst religious groups, at 24% for Muslim women and 47% for Muslim men although the study noted that Muslim women who worked earned more than Muslim men and that a relatively high proportion of Muslim men were in self employment. Muslim men also had the smallest proportion with degrees, at 18%. More than two-fifths of Muslim men and women have no qualification beyond level 1 (equivalent to grades D-G at GCSE).[128] The latest data from the ONS for England and Wales indicates progress in these metrics, however across religious groups Muslims continue to hold the lowest earnings, lowest rates of employment, highest rates of economic inactivity, least likely to work in high-skilled occupations, least likely to hold managerial positions, and most likely to report having no qualifications.[129]

According to analysis based on the 2011 census, Muslims in the United Kingdom face poor standards of housing, poorer levels of education and are more vulnerable to long-term illness,[130] and that Muslims in the UK had the highest rate of unemployment, the poorest health, the most disability and fewest educational qualifications among religious groups.[131] The figures were, to some extent, explained by the fact that Muslims were the least well-established group, having the youngest age profile.[131]

According to a 2013 assessment from the Muslim Council of Britain, it was estimated that there were more than 10,000 Muslim millionaires and 13,400 Muslim-owned businesses in London, creating more than 70,000 jobs and representing just over 33 per cent of Small to Medium Enterprises in London.[132]

Education

In 2018, 34 per cent of British Muslims had degree level qualifications, compared to 30 per cent of Christians and 35 per cent of those with no religion. 13 per cent of Muslims had no qualifications, higher than every other religious group.[133]

In 2006, it was found that approximately 53% of British Muslim youth chose to attend university.[134] This was higher than the figure for Christians (45%) and the non-religious (32%) but lower than for Hindus (77%) and Sikhs (63%).[134]

There are around 184 Muslim faith schools in the UK, 28 of them being state-funded.[135] In 2008, 86.5% of pupils attending Muslim schools achieved five GCSEs, compared to a figure of 72.8% of Roman Catholic schools and 64.5% of secular schools.[136]

In 2019, four Islamic schools were in the top ten ranking for secondary schools in England, including Tauheedul Islam Girls High School in first place.[137]

In 2018, the Crown Prosecution Service brought its first prosecution in England & Wales against an unregistered school, the Islamic faith school Al-Istiqamah Learning Centre in Southall, London where nearly 60 children aged 5–11 were being taught.[138][139][140] Head teacher Beatrix Bernhardt and director Nacerdine Talbi were convicted as running a school not registered with the Department for Education violates the Education and Skills Act 2008. They received fines and a curfew.[141]

Politics

Sadiq Khan the current Mayor of London, was elected in 2016.
Pola Uddin, Baroness Uddin was the first Muslim female to sit in the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Anwar Choudhury has been UK Ambassador to Peru and Bangladesh.

Muslims are playing an increasingly prominent role in political life.[142] Nineteen Muslim MPs were elected in the December 2019 general election,[143] and there are nineteen Muslim peers in the House of Lords.

The majority of British Muslims vote for the Labour Party,[144] however there are some high-profile Conservative Muslims, including former Minister for Faith and Communities and former Co-chairman and the Conservative Party Sayeeda Warsi,[145] described by The Guardian as a 'rising star' in the Tory party.[146] The Guardian stated that "The treasury minister is highly regarded on the right and would be the Tories' first Muslim leader." Salma Yaqoob is the former leader of the left-wing Respect Party.[147] Sayeeda Warsi, who was the first Muslim to serve in a British cabinet, was appointed by David Cameron in 2010 as a minister without portfolio. She was made a senior minister of state in 2012. In August 2014 she resigned over the government's approach to the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict.[148]

Muslim political parties in Britain have included the People's Justice Party (UK), a Pakistani and Kashmiri party that won city council seats in Manchester in the 2000s,[149] and the unsuccessful Islamic Party of Britain, an Islamist party in Bradford in the 1990s.[150]

In the 2017 general election, 15 Muslim MPs (12 Labour and 3 Conservative) were elected, up from 13 Muslim MPs in 2015 general election.[151] In the 2019 general election, a record number of 19 Muslim MPs were elected (15 Labour and 4 Conservative).[152][153]

Survey data analysed by UK in a Changing Europe showed that Labour (72 per cent) led Conservatives (11 per cent) by 61 points amongst Muslim voters in 2019. Further analysis showed that many minorities were "necessity liberals" who voted for Labour not because they were social liberals, but because Labour represented a broader political package and distrusted the Conservatives on identity matters. British Pakistani and British Bangladeshi voters in particular, by a margin of 20–30 points, believed that LGBT rights had gone too far.[154]

Muslim MPs by election 1997–2019
Election Labour Conservative Scottish National Party Other Total  % of Parliament
1997[155] 1 0 0 0 1 0.15
2001[156] 2 0 0 0 2 0.31
2005[157] 4 0 0 0 4 0.62
2010[158] 6 2 0 0 8 1.23
2015[159] 9 3 1 0 13 2.00
2017[151] 12 3 0 0 15 2.31
2019[160] 14 5 0 0 19 2.92

Law

Public demonstration in the United Kingdom for sharia, October 2009

Although sharia is not part of the British legal system, several British establishment figures have supported its use in areas of dispute resolution in Islamic communities. For example, in February 2008 Rowan Williams the Archbishop of Canterbury (the head of the Church of England) lectured at the Royal Courts of Justice on Islam and English law. In this lecture he spoke of the possibility of using sharia in some circumstances:

[...] it might be possible to think in terms of [...] a scheme in which individuals retain the liberty to choose the jurisdiction under which they will seek to resolve certain carefully specified matters, so that 'power-holders are forced to compete for the loyalty of their shared constituents'.

Rowan Williams, 2008[161]

Several months later, Lord Phillips, then Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales supported the idea that sharia could be reasonably employed as a basis for "mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution", and explained that "It is not very radical to advocate embracing sharia law in the context of family disputes, for example, and our system already goes a long way towards accommodating the archbishop's suggestion."[162]

In March 2014, The Law Society issued guidance on how to draft sharia-compliant wills for the network of sharia courts which been established to deal with disputes between Muslim families.[163] The guidance was withdrawn later in 2014 following criticism by solicitors and by Chris Grayling, the Justice Secretary.[164]

In 2016–2018 an independent panel commissioned by the UK government investigated the practices of sharia councils operating in England and Wales. The councils have no legal status and no legal jurisdiction in the UK. Estimates for their number range between 30 and 85. The investigation found that most people consulting the councils are women seeking an Islamic divorce. The review concluded that "there is unanimous agreement among the sharia councils themselves that discriminatory practices do occur in some instances within the councils in England and Wales" and made legislative and administrative recommendations to remedy the abuses. The panel was not aware of any sharia councils operating in Scotland.[165]

According to Kaveri Qureshi, while women educate themselves and follow Islamic norms and values referring to colonial era Islamic advice literature about marriage not for continuation but to end their marriages and for justification of remarriages contrary to original intention of authors of the literature.[166]

Media

There are several Islamic television channels operating in the UK, including British Muslim TV, Muslim Television Ahmadiyya International (MTA International),[167][168] Ummah Channel,[169] Ahlebait TV, and Fadak.

British Muslims are represented in various media positions across different organisations. Notable examples include Mehdi Hasan, the political editor of the UK version of The Huffington Post[170] and the presenter of Al Jazeera English shows The Café and Head to Head,[171] Mishal Husain, a British news presenter for the BBC, currently appearing on BBC World News and BBC Weekend News, Rageh Omaar, special correspondent with ITV and formerly Senior Foreign Correspondent with the BBC and a reporter/presenter for Al Jazeera English,[172] and Faisal Islam, economics editor and correspondent for Channel 4 News.[173]

Associations

Practice

Proselytization

It is estimated that 5,200 Britons convert to Islam annually, with a total of about 100,000 converts in 2013. For men, prisons have proven a fertile ground for conversions. About 18% of the British prison population, or over 14,000 prisoners, are Muslims, disproportionately higher than the general population.[176] The proportion of Muslims in the UK prison population rose from 8% in 2002 to 15% in 2016.[177] According to the UK prison officers' union in 2013, some Muslim prisoners in the UK had allegedly forcibly converted fellow inmates to Islam in prisons.[178] There have been multiple cases of non-Muslim prisoners threatened with violence[179] with "convert or get hurt" being a commonly used phrase by Muslim gangs according to an independent report published by the government.[180] A 2010 report by the Chief Inspector of Prisons stated that 30% of the Muslim prisoners interviewed had converted to Islam while in prison, some of whom were "convenience Muslims" who adopted the religion in order to get benefits available only to Muslims.[181] Mosques in the country are sometimes seen as ethnic clubs which are not welcoming of new converts but there have also been recent convert led mosques.[182]

Extremist ideology

In June 2017, Jeremy Corbyn, leader of the Labour Party, said that difficult conversations are needed, starting with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states that have funded and fuelled extremist ideology.[183][184] Tom Brake, Liberal Democrat, foreign affairs spokesman has said that Saudi Arabia provides funding to hundreds of mosques in the UK, espousing a very hardline Wahhabist interpretation of Islam.[185]

The French political scientist Olivier Roy argues that the majority of Islamic terrorists are radicals first and are drawn to fundamentalist Islam as a result,[186] whereas fellow political scientist Gilles Kepel argues that terrorists are radicalized by Salafi ideology before choosing violence.[187] Roy has also argued that the burkini bans and secularist policies of France provoked religious violence in France, to which Kepel responded that Britain has no such policies and still suffered several jihadist attacks in 2017 while there were no major attacks in France.[187]

Some preachers in London's mosques look for Muslim boys who lack clear direction, and set them on the path to radicalisation and terror.[188]

According to Gilles de Kerchove in 2017, the UK had the highest number of Islamist radicals in the EU numbering between 20 and 25,000. Of those, 3000 were considered a direct threat by MI5 and 500 were under constant surveillance.[189] Among those known to security services but not considered an immediate threat were the terrorists of three ISIS-linked attacks in 2017 which killed 35 victims in the UK.[189]

In July 2017, a report by the Henry Jackson Society, a neo-conservative[190][191] think tank, claimed that Middle Eastern nations are providing financial support to mosques and Islamic educational institutions that have been linked to the spread of extremist material with "an illiberal, bigoted Wahhabi ideology".[192][193] The report said that the number of Salafi and Wahhabi mosques in Britain had increased from 68 in 2007 to 110 in 2014.[194]

Hardline groups, including Hizb-ut-Tahrir, use accusations of Islamophobia to silence legitimate debate about extremism. While they in general are opposed to Western-style human rights, they use human rights to promote an Islamist ideology.[195]

Relations with wider society

Attitudes

In 2019, a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 78% of Britons had a favourable view of Muslims, while 18% had an unfavourable view of Muslims. This was the most favourable in Europe.[196]

The British media has been criticised for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling Islamophobic prejudice.[197] In 2006, several British cabinet ministers were criticised for helping to "unleash a public anti-Muslim backlash" by blaming the Muslim community over issues of integration despite a study commissioned by the Home Office on white and Asian-Muslim youths demonstrating otherwise: that Asian-Muslim youths "are in fact the most tolerant of all" and that white youths "have far more intolerant attitudes," concluding that the attitudes held by members of the white community was a greater "barrier to integration."[198][199] Another survey by Gallup in 2009 also found that the Muslim community claimed to feel more patriotic about Britain than the general British population as a whole,[200][201] while another survey found that Muslims assert that they support the role of Christianity in British life more so than British Christians themselves.[202] In January 2010, the British Social Attitudes Survey found that the general public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam," and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."[203] The "scapegoating" of British Muslims by the media and politicians in the 21st century has been compared in the media to the rise of antisemitism in the early 20th century.[204] A survey conducted in 2017 revealed widespread opposition to Muslim immigration across UK. 47% are opposed to further Muslim immigration, according to a survey conducted by Chatham House. Furthermore, 55% of Britons believe there is a fundamental clash between Islam and the values of British society, according to a YouGov poll. Various other surveys have also shown that such attitudes amongst all European citizens.[205] A 2013 survey indicated that immigrants from Muslim countries were perceived as integrating less well into British society than immigrants from other countries were.[206] Another poll revealed that 28% of British Muslims hoped that Britain would one day become an Islamic state, while 52% disagreed, and 20% did not venture an opinion either way.[207]

Protest against Israel's bombing of the Gaza Strip in London on 11 November 2023

According to one survey from 2006, around 81% of Muslims think of themselves as Muslim first. This is consistent with Muslims living in Muslim-majority countries, who also tend to think of themselves as Muslim first rather than identifying with nation states (for example 87% of Pakistanis identify themselves as Muslim first rather than Pakistani).[208] However, around 83% of Muslims are proud to be a British citizen, compared to 79% of the general public, 77% of Muslims strongly identify with Britain while only 50% of the wider population do, 86.4% of Muslims feel they belong in Britain, slightly more than the 85.9% of Christians, 82% of Muslims want to live in diverse and mixed neighbourhoods compared to 63% of non-Muslim Britons.[209] In polls taken across Europe 2006, British Muslims hold the most negative view of westerners out of all Muslims in Europe, whilst overall in Britain 63% of British hold the most favourable view of Muslims out of all the European countries (down from 67% the year before).[210]

On religious issues, a 2007 poll reported that 36% of 16- to 24-year-olds believed if a Muslim converted to another religion they should be punished by death, compared to 19% of 55+ year old Muslims. A poll reported that 59% of Muslims would prefer to live under British law, compared to 28% who would prefer to live under sharia law. 61% of respondents agreed with the statement that homosexuality is wrong and should be illegal.[211][212][213] This appeared to be borne out by a Gallup poll in 2009 of 500 British Muslims, none of whom believed that homosexuality was morally acceptable.[214] Such polls suggest that British Muslims have strongly conservative views on issues relating to extra-marital and/or homosexual sexual acts compared with their European Muslim counterparts – who are markedly more liberal.[214] However, a poll conducted by Demos in 2011 reported that a greater proportion of Muslims (47% – slightly higher than the 46.5% of Christians who agreed with the statement) than other religions agreed with the statement "I am proud of how Britain treats gay people", with less than 11% disagreeing.[215][216][217] On 18 May 2013, just as the bill to legalise same-sex marriages was being prepared to pass into law, over 400 leading Muslims including head teachers and senior representatives of mosques across the country, published an open letter opposing the bill on the grounds that "Muslim parents will be robbed of their right to raise their children according to their beliefs, as homosexual relationships are taught as something normal to their primary-aged children".[218]

Culture

In 2013, there were 40 Muslim players in the English Premier League, up from one in 1992. Man of the Match awardees were awarded bottles of champagne, which is forbidden in Islam, and after Muslim player Yaya Toure refused the award, champagne was phased out for small trophies instead. Children playing football have been seen falling to their knees as if in prayer after scoring a goal, a common practice of Muslim footballers.[219]

Islamophobia

A 2021 study published by the University of Birmingham found that Muslims are the British public's second ‘least liked’ group, after Gypsy and Irish Travellers with 25.9% of the British public holding negative views towards Muslims and only 23.5% holding a positive view.[220] People from middle and upper-class backgrounds were more likely to hold prejudiced views about Islam compared to those from working-class backgrounds. 71% of respondents named Islam as having a more negative impact on society compared to other religions with 18.1% of those surveyed supported banning all Muslim migration to the UK.[221] Another study in 2017 conducted by Chatham House found that 47% of Britons supported banning immigration from Muslim-majority countries.[222] There have been cases of threats,[223] one fatal attack,[224] and non-fatal attacks on Muslims and on Muslim targets, including attacks on Muslim graves[225] and mosques.[226] In January 2010, a report from the University of Exeter's European Muslim Research Centre noted that the number of anti-Muslim hate crimes has increased, ranging from "death threats and murder to persistent low-level assaults, such as spitting and name-calling," for which the media and politicians have been blamed with fueling anti-Muslim hatred.[227][228][229] However, Met Police figures showed an 8.5 per cent fall in anti-Muslim crimes between 2009 and 2012, with a spike in 2013 due to the murder of Lee Rigby.[230]

The emergence of the English Defence League resulted in demonstrations in English cities with large Muslim populations.[231][232][233][234][235] The EDL was a right wing, anti Islam[232][233][231][236][237] street protest movement which opposed what it considers to be a spread of Islamism, Sharia law and Islamic extremism in the United Kingdom.[238][239][240][241] The EDL has been described by The Jewish Chronicle as Islamophobic.[242] The group has faced confrontations with various groups, including supporters of Unite Against Fascism (UAF) and Anonymous.[243][244][245]

Sikh relations

In 2018, a report by a Sikh activist organisation, Sikh Youth UK, entitled "The Religiously Aggravated Sexual Exploitation of Young Sikh Women Across the UK" made allegations of similarities between the case of Sikh women and the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal.[246] However, in 2019 this report was criticised by researchers and an official UK government report led by two Sikh academics for false and misleading information.[247][248] It noted: "The RASE report lacks solid data, methodological transparency and rigour. It is filled instead with sweeping generalisations and poorly substantiated claims around the nature and scale of abuse of Sikh girls and causal factors driving it. It appealed heavily to historical tensions between Sikhs and Muslims and narratives of honour in a way that seemed designed to whip up fear and hate".[248] Another investigation by another Sikh scholar, Katy Sian of the University of York, also found no truth to the allegations and instead found it was an allegation being pushed by extremist Sikh groups.[249][250]

Antisemitism

According to British Muslim journalist Mehdi Hasan, "anti-Semitism isn't just tolerated in some sections of the British Muslim community; it's routine and commonplace".[251] A 2016 survey of 5,446 adult Britons, part of a report titled Anti-Semitism in contemporary Great Britain conducted by the London-based Institute for Jewish Policy Research found that the prevalence of antisemitic views among Muslims was two to four times higher than the rest of the population,[252] that 55% of British Muslims held at least one antisemitic view (compared to 30% of the general population), and that there was a correlation between Muslim religiosity and antisemitism.[253] A 2020 poll found that 45% of British Muslims held a generally favourable view of British Jews, and 18% held a negative view.[254]

Notable Muslims

Politics

  • Waqar Azmi OBE, EU Ambassador of Intercultural Dialogue
  • Sadiq Khan, Labour Party mayor of London
  • Humza Yousaf, First Minister of Scotland and Leader of the SNP
  • Sayeeda Warsi, Conservative and Unionist Life Peer and former Cabinet Minister

Sport

Religious

Philanthropy

Notable mosques

See also

Notes

    References

    1. "Religious composition, 2011 and 2021, England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. 29 November 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
    2. "2011 Census: Quick Statistics". Retrieved 17 May 2014.
    3. "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". Pew Research Center. 12 April 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
    4. CT0341_2011 Census - Religion by ethnic group by main language - England and Wales ONS.
    5. "Religion, England and Wales - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
    6. "Religion (detailed) - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
    7. "2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales (Excel sheet 270Kb)" (xls). Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
    8. "Scotland's Census 2011 – National Records of Scotland Table KS209SCa – Religion (UK harmonised)" (PDF). National Records of Scotland. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
    9. "Religion – Full Detail: QS218NI" (xls). Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
    10. UK Masjid Statistics Archived 11 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine Muslims In Britain (18 August 2010)
    11. Shaw, Alison (4 April 2011). "Review of Crime and Muslim Britain: Culture and the Politics of Criminology among British Pakistanis by Marta Bolognani". Journal of Islamic Studies. Oxford Journals. 22 (2): 288–291. doi:10.1093/jis/etr020.
    12. Muslims in Britain: an Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.xvii + 318, ISBN 978-0-521-83006-5
    13. Nye, Catrin (4 January 2011). "The white Britons converting to Islam". BBC News. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
    14. 'UK Census: religion by age, ethnicity and country of birth' Archived 6 May 2016 at Wikiwix 16 May 2013, Ami Sedghi, The Guardian
    15. Muslim population 'rising 10 times faster than rest of society' 30 January 2009, Richard Kerbaj, The Sunday Times
    16. "Offa Dinar". British Museum. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017.
    17. Brotton, Jerry (21 March 2016). "The First Muslims in England". BBC News. Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
    18. 1 2 Junie T. Tong (2016). Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets. CRC Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-317-13522-7.
    19. 1 2 John L. Esposito, ed. (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Vol. 1: Abba - Hist. Oxford University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-19-516520-3.
    20. 1 2 Indrajit Ray (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757-1857). Routledge. pp. 7–10. ISBN 978-1-136-82552-1.
    21. Shombit Sengupta, Bengals plunder gifted the British Industrial Revolution Archived 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Financial Express, 8 February 2010
    22. 1 2 David Motadel (2014), Islam and the European Empires, page 267, Oxford University Press
    23. 1 2 Francis Robinson (2001), The British Empire and the Muslim world Archived 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Oxford History of the British Empire, volume 4, pages 398-420, Oxford University Press
    24. 1 2 Lugard, Flora Louise (1911). "Justice, &c." . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). British Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 615.
    25. C.E. Buckland, Dictionary of Indian Biography, Haskell House Publishers Ltd, 1968, p.217
    26. Alam, Shahid (12 May 2012). "For casual reader and connoisseur alike". The Daily Star.
    27. 1 2 Ali, Daud (3 July 2014). "The idea of the medieval in the writing of South Asian history: contexts, methods and politics". Social History. 39 (3): 382–407. doi:10.1080/03071022.2014.942521. ISSN 0307-1022. S2CID 143855459.
    28. Robinson, Francis (December 1998). "The British Empire and Muslim Identity in South Asia". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 8: 271–289. doi:10.2307/3679298. ISSN 0080-4401. JSTOR 3679298. S2CID 154772583.
    29. Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8, 181. ISBN 81-7824-154-4.
    30. "Curry house founder is honoured". BBC. 29 September 2005. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
    31. 1 2 Fisher, Michael H. (2004). Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Travellers and Settlers in Britain, 1600-1857. Delhi: Permanent Black. pp. 140, 154–6, 160–8, 172. ISBN 978-81-7824-154-8.
    32. Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 1-85065-685-1.
    33. Robinson-Dunn, Diane (February 2003). "Lascar Sailors and English Converts: The Imperial Port and Islam in late 19th-Century England". Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges. Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2009.
    34. Behal, Rana P.; van der Linden, Marcel, eds. (2006). Coolies, Capital and Colonialism: Studies in Indian Labour History. Cambridge University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-521-69974-7.
    35. Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 37. ISBN 1-85065-685-1.
    36. The 'forgotten' army of 400,000 Muslim soldiers who fought for British freedom in World War I Archived 19 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Mirror, 9 January 2017
    37. Ziauddin Sardar (2012), Critical Muslim 2: The Idea of Islam, page 131, Oxford University Press
    38. 1 2 Ibrahim, Azeem (24 April 2014). "How Muslims Won the Second World War". HuffPost.
    39. Leonard, Thomas M. (8 August 2005). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781579583880 via Google Books.
    40. 1 2 Sardais, Louise (August 2003). "The 'little mosque'". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
    41. "Liverpool Mosque and Muslim Institute". Open University. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
    42. Khizar Humayun Ansari, 'Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1872–1953)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Oct 2012; online edn, Jan 2013 accessed 6 February 2020
    43. "East London Mosque - London Muslim Centre". East London Mosque. 12 February 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
    44. 1 2 MariaCaterina La Barbera (2014), Identity and Migration in Europe: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, page 230, Springer Science+Business Media
    45. Richard D. Hecht, Vincent F. Biondo (2010), Religion and Everyday Life and Culture, page 859, ABC-CLIO
    46. Muslim Migration to Europe Archived 1 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, University of Minnesota, 17 June 2015
    47. How migrants helped make the NHS Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 18 June 2008
    48. Nahid Afrose Kabir (2012), Young British Muslims, Edinburgh University Press
    49. Timothy Peace (2015), European Social Movements and Muslim Activism: Another World but with Whom?, page 55, Springer Science+Business Media
    50. Lustig, Robin; Bailey, Martin; de Bruxelles, Simon; Mather, Ian (19 February 1989). "War of the Word". The Observer. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
    51. Dominic Casciani (29 November 2007) The battle over mosque reform BBC News (BBC). Retrieved 3 May 2009.
    52. Gilliat-Ray, Sophie (2010). Muslims in Britain. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN 9780521536882., reported in Field, Clive. "How Many Muslims?". British Religion in Numbers. Archived from the original on 7 April 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
    53. 1 2 "Religion, England and Wales - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
    54. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Hindu, Muslim and Sikh populations". brin.ac.uk/figures. Archived from the original on 29 March 2013.
    55. 1 2 3 "Datablog: UK Census: religion by age, ethnicity and country of birth". The Guardian. 16 May 2013. Archived from the original on 6 May 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
    56. "Religion, England and Wales: Census 2021 - Office for National Statistics".
    57. Rudgard, Olivia (29 November 2017). "Muslim population of the UK could triple to 13m following 'record' influx". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2018.
    58. "Home - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
    59. "2011 Census: Religion, local authorities in England and Wales" (xls). United Kingdom Census 2011. Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
    60. "Development of an Estates Strategy". Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 25 February 2009. paragraph 4.3
    61. 1 2 "Bangladeshi Diaspora in the UK: Some observations on socio-culturaldynamics, religious trends and transnational politics" (PDF). University of Surrey. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
    62. 1 2 "bdirectory: Islamist politics among Bangladeshis in the UK". David Garbin – Cronem, University of Surrey. Archived from the original on 12 January 2009. Retrieved 27 July 2008.
    63. "Genetics, Religion and Identity: A Study of British Bangladeshis – 2004–2007" (PDF). School of Social Sciences – Cardiff University – funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.
    64. "Home - Office for National Statistics". www.statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 18 March 2007.
    65. Eade, John (1996). "Nationalism, Community, and the Islamization of Space in London". In Metcalf, Barbara Daly (ed.). Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520204042. Retrieved 19 April 2015. As one of the few mosques in Britain permitted to broadcast calls to prayer (azan), the mosque soon found itself at the center of a public debate about "noise pollution" when local non-Muslim residents began to protest.
    66. "Office for National Statistics (ONS) – ONS". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 18 March 2007.
    67. "2001 Census Profiles: Bangladeshis in London" (PDF). Greater London Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2005. Retrieved 1 August 2004.
    68. Ahmed, Abdul-Azim; Ali, Mansur (2019). "In Search of Sylhet—The Fultoli Tradition in Britain". Religions. 10 (10): 572. doi:10.3390/rel10100572.
    69. M. Jawed Iqbal; Mufti Ebrahim Desai (9 June 2007). "Inviting to Islam". Ask Imam. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 16 August 2008.
    70. "Draft Constitution by Hizb ut-Tahrir". The Media office of Hizb-ut-Tahrir. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 16 August 2008.
    71. "Compendium of Muslim texts – Volume 3, Book 48, Number 819". University of Southern California. Archived from the original on 1 May 1999. Retrieved 16 August 2008.
    72. The Next Attack, By Daniel Benjamin Steven Simon, ISBN 0-8050-7941-6 – Page 55
    73. "East London Mosque and London Muslim Centre". East London Mosque. Archived from the original on 26 July 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2008.
    74. "Bangladeshis in east London: from secular politics to Islam". Delwar Hussain – openDemocracy: free thinking for the world. Archived from the original on 30 August 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2008.
    75. International Organization for Migration (2007). "Iraq: Mapping exercise" (PDF). London: International Organization for Migration. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
    76. 1 2 3 Home Affairs Committee (2011), Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union (PDF), The Stationery Office, p. Ev 34, ISBN 978-0-215-56114-5
    77. Şentürk, Cem (2008), West Thrace Turkish's Immigration to Europe (PDF), The Journal of International Social Research, p. 427
    78. Travis, Alan (1 August 2011). "UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 2 August 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
    79. Essex County Council. "An Electronic Toolkit for Teachers: Turkish and Turkish Cypriot Pupils" (PDF). Retrieved 16 June 2011.
    80. 100 Years of Turkish Cypriot Migration to the UK, V&A Museum, 2017, retrieved 27 March 2019
    81. Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey and Pakistan. Ashgate Publishing. p. 153. ISBN 0-7546-4389-1..
    82. Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: Muslims in Britain since 1800. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-85065-685-2.
    83. Sonyel 2000, 147
    84. BBC. "Turkish today by Viv Edwardss". Archived from the original on 25 January 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
    85. Cassia 2007, 238
    86. 1 2 3 Issa, Tözün (2005). Talking Turkey: the language, culture and identity of Turkish speaking children in Britain. Trentham Books. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-85856-318-3.
    87. Yilmaz 2005, p. 154.
    88. Thomson, Mark (2006). "Immigration to the UK: The case of Turks" (PDF). University of Sussex: Sussex Centre for Migration Research. p. 19.
    89. Geaves, Ron (2001). "The Haqqani Naqshbandi: A Study of Apocalyptic Millennnialism within Islam". In Porter, Stanley E.; Hayes, Michael A.; Tombs, David (eds.). Faith in the Millennium. Sheffield Academic Press. p. 218. ISBN 1-84127-092-X.
    90. London Borough of Hackney. "UK Turkish Islamic Association - Aziziye Mosque". Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
    91. London Borough of Hackney. "UK Turkish Islamic Cultural Centre / Suleymaniye Mosque". Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
    92. Çoştu, Yakup; Turan, Süleyman (2009), "İngiltere'deki Türk Camileri ve Entegrasyon Sürecine Sosyo-Kültürel Katkıları" (PDF), Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi, x (4): 45, archived from the original (PDF) on 10 July 2011, retrieved 27 March 2019
    93. Yilmaz 2005, 155.
    94. Communities and Local Government 2009a, 6
    95. "Turkish London". BBC London. August 2008. Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
    96. Begikhani, Nazand; Gill, Aisha; Hague, Gill; Ibraheem, Kawther (November 2010). "Final Report: Honour-based Violence (HBV) and Honour-based Killings in Iraqi Kurdistan and in the Kurdish Diaspora in the UK" (PDF). Centre for Gender and Violence Research, University of Bristol and Roehampton University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
    97. "Who are the Iraqi Kurds?".
    98. Stephen, Mansfield (18 June 2012). "Religious Neutrality In Iraqi Kurdistan". HuffPost.
    99. Communities and Local Government (2009). The Iraqi Muslim Community in England: Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities. Communities and Local Government. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-4098-1263-0. Archived from the original on 19 September 2012.
    100. "Country-of-birth database". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
    101. "Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign country of birth (Table 1.3)". Office for National Statistics. September 2009. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
    102. "Iraq: Mapping exercise" (PDF). London: International Organization for Migration. March 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
    103. Inbar, Efraim; Frisch, Hillel (January 2008). Radical Islam and International Security: Challenges and Responses. Routledge. ISBN 9780415444606.
    104. Change Institute (April 2009). "The Nigerian Muslim Community in England: Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities" (PDF). Communities and Local Government. pp. 23–24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
    105. "Nigeria Muslim Forum – Nigeria Muslim Forum". nmfuk.org. Archived from the original on 21 September 2011.
    106. "Country-of-birth database". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2009.
    107. "Table 1.3: Estimated population resident in the United Kingdom, by foreign country of birth, 60 most common countries of birth, January 2008 to December 2008". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2009. Figure given is the central estimate. See the source for 95 per cent confidence intervals.
    108. 1 2 Dissanayake, Samanthi (4 December 2008). "British Somalis play politics from afar". BBC News. Archived from the original on 17 February 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2009.
    109. Casciani, Dominic (30 May 2006). "Somalis' struggle in the UK". BBC News. Retrieved 25 January 2009.
    110. "Born abroad: Somalia". BBC News. 7 September 2005. Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2009.
    111. "Liverpool City Council/Liverpool PCT Equality Impact Assessment Template". Archived from the original on 6 November 2009. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
    112. "Integration of the Somali Community into Europe". Federation of Adult Education Associations. Archived from the original on 16 December 2009. Retrieved 3 February 2010.
    113. Burckhardt, John Lewis. Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys: Collected during His Travels in the East. London: H. Colburn and R. Bentley, 1831
    114. "The British Victorians who became Muslims". BBC. 19 May 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
    115. Staetsky, L. Daniel (September 2017). "Antisemitism in contemporary Great Britain: A study of attitudes towards Jews and Israel" (PDF). Institute for Jewish Policy Research. pp. 47 & 59. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
    116. "Muslims in Europe: Integrated but not accepted?" (PDF). Bertelsmann Stiftung. August 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
    117. Staetsky, L. Daniel (September 2017). "Antisemitism in contemporary Great Britain: A study of attitudes towards Jews and Israel" (PDF). Institute for Jewish Policy Research. p. 47. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
    118. https://www.muslimsinbritain.org/resources/masjid_report.pdf
    119. 1 2 "Ramadan ding-dong: Foreign conflicts stoke sectarian squabbles among British Muslims". The Economist. 27 June 2015. Archived from the original on 28 June 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
    120. Staetsky, L. Daniel (September 2017). "Antisemitism in contemporary Great Britain: A study of attitudes towards Jews and Israel" (PDF). Institute for Jewish Policy Research. p. 59. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
    121. UK Masjid Statistics Archived 11 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine Muslims In Britain (18 August 2010). Mehmood Naqshbandi. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
    122. "Bagehot: Multicultural and aggrieved". The Economist. 24 January 2015. Archived from the original on 1 February 2015. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
    123. "Head Of Ahmadiyya Muslim Community Opens New Central Mosque In Islamabad, Tilford, UK". Press & Media Office. 19 May 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
    124. Ahmadiyya Muslim Mosques Around The World - A Pictorical Presentation. Ahmadiyya Muslim Community; Khilafat Centenary Edition. 2008. p. 253. ISBN 978-1882494514.
    125. Asif Arif (8 April 2014). "Lettre ouverte aux éditeurs du "Luton on Sunday"". Huffington Post (France). Archived from the original on 14 April 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
    126. "UK: 'Luton on Sunday' newspaper bows to Luton Taliban". Ahmadiyya Times. 8 April 2014. Archived from the original on 12 April 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
    127. "The Luton on Sunday 'Shuffle' and Impacts on anti-Muslim hate". Tell Mama. 9 April 2014. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
    128. Field, Clive (27 April 2010). "Economic Inequality and Religion". Retrieved 9 July 2019. Alternative URL
    129. "Religion, education and work in England and Wales: February 2020". ons.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
    130. "British Muslims in Numbers" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
    131. 1 2 John Carvel (12 October 2004). "Census shows Muslims' plight". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
    132. "London's Mecca rich: the rise of the Muslim multi-millionaires". standard.co.uk. 30 October 2013. Archived from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
    133. "Religion, education and work in England and Wales - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
    134. 1 2 Collins, Nick (14 May 2006). "Christian and atheist children least likely to go to university". Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
    135. "Faith schools in the UK". Religion Media Centre. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
    136. "Research briefings" (PDF). UK Parliament. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
    137. "Muslim faith schools lead the pack in UK top schools list".
    138. "Muslim 'tuition centre' was being run as an illegal school". Metro. 24 October 2018. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
    139. "NSS welcomes first convictions for running unregistered faith school". National Secular Society. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
    140. Johnson, Jamie (24 October 2018). "School which taught that only Muslims were saved on Noah's Ark is first to be fined for opening illegally". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
    141. "Unregistered school prosecuted in legal first | The Crown Prosecution Service". www.cps.gov.uk. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
    142. "Muslims and Political Participation in Britain: Conference 2012". ed.ac.uk. 24 July 2012. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014.
    143. Zatat, Narjas (18 December 2019). "A record number of British-Muslim MPs were elected to parliament in 2019. Here they are..." alaraby. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
    144. David Sapsted (25 February 2010). "Most UK Muslims will vote Labour". thenational.ae. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013.
    145. Montgomerie, Tim (4 September 2012). "Junior Ministerial reshuffle rolling blog". ConservativeHome. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2012.
    146. Watt, Nicholas (31 January 2013). "Tory party: the rising stars and those fading fast". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 4 January 2017.
    147. BBC News (8 April 2010). "Respect Party leader Salma Yaqoob". BBC. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
    148. "Baroness Warsi quits as Foreign Office minister over Gaza". BBC. 5 August 2014. Archived from the original on 5 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.
    149. Prasad, Raekha (18 June 2002). "Tough Justice". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 April 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
    150. Dabrowska, Karen (16 November 1989). "British Islamic Party spreads its wings". New Straits Times. Malaysia. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
    151. 1 2 "Record number of Muslim MPs elected". The Muslim News. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
    152. "Fears of Islamophobia in the UK even as record number of Muslim MPs elected". Arab News. 14 December 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
    153. "General Election 2019: new intake of Conservative MPs shifts the balance of the party in favour of youth". The Independent. 15 December 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
    154. Kanagasooriam, James (3 January 2024). "Non-white Britain is more diverse than ever". The Times. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
    155. "BBC News | UK Politics | Vindication for UK's first Muslim MP".
    156. "MPS 'struggle to recognise Muslims in the Commons'".
    157. "Islamic reaction too small to hurt Blair". Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.
    158. "Rejoice! The number of Muslim MPS has doubled". 9 June 2021.
    159. "Record of 13 Muslim MPS elected, 8 of them women". 10 May 2015.
    160. "Record number of Muslims win in UK 2019 Elections".
    161. Williams, Rowan (7 February 2008). "Civil and Religious Law in England: a religious perspective". Archived from the original on 8 November 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
    162. "Sharia law 'could have UK role'". BBC News. 4 July 2008. Archived from the original on 21 September 2008. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
    163. "Islamic law is adopted by British legal chiefs". Telegraph.co.uk. 22 March 2014. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017.
    164. Bowcott, Owen (24 November 2014). "Law Society withdraws guidance on sharia wills". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 December 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
    165. "The independent review into the application of sharia law in England and Wales" (PDF). February 2018 via www.gov.uk.
    166. Qureshi, Kaveri (2 January 2018). "Marriage, the Islamic advice literature and its women readers". Contemporary Levant. 3 (1): 32–43. doi:10.1080/20581831.2018.1455341. hdl:20.500.11820/3fc50ac1-565b-453b-8375-0818d44506d8. ISSN 2058-1831. S2CID 149478769.
    167. "MTA International". Archived from the original on 3 February 2007.
    168. "About Islam Channel". Islam Channel website. Archived from the original on 29 January 2010. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
    169. Baddhan, Lakhvinder, ed. (12 August 2009). "Ummah Channel replaces 9X on Sky EPG". BizAsia.co.uk. Biz Asia. Archived from the original on 14 December 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
    170. "Mehdi Hasan". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
    171. "Mehdi Hasan – Profile". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 July 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2013.
    172. "Rageh Omaar". itv.com. Archived from the original on 16 November 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
    173. "Faisal Islam". Channel4.com. Archived from the original on 29 June 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2008.
    174. "Love for All, Hatred For None- An official website of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community UK". www.loveforallhatredfornone.org. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
    175. Rosser-Owen, David (30 April 2010). "History". Association of British Muslims. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
    176. "Table 1.5: Prison population by religion and sex". gov.uk. Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
    177. Allen & Watson (20 April 2017). "Briefing Paper Number SN/SG/04334UK - Prison Population Statistics" (PDF). House of Commons Library. p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
    178. Withnall, A. (20 October 2013). "Britain's jails facing 'growing problem' of forced conversion to Islam, officers warn". The Independent. UK.
    179. Ford, Richard (7 June 2019). "Muslim gangs 'beat prisoners' who will not convert to Islam". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
    180. Bloom, Colin. "Does government 'do God?' An independent review into how government engages with faith" (PDF). gov.uk. Department for Levelling Up, Housing & Communities. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
    181. Whitehead, Tom (8 June 2010). "Prisoners converting to Islam for 'perks'". Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
    182. "A British strand of Islam is emerging as more people become converts". The Economist. 18 May 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2022.
    183. "London Bridge attack: Jeremy Corbyn says Britain needs to have 'difficult' talks with Saudi Arabia". 5 June 2017. Archived from the original on 6 June 2017.
    184. "Jeremy Corbyn calls for 'difficult conversations' with Saudi Arabia and Gulf states over extremism funding". 5 June 2017. Archived from the original on 27 August 2017.
    185. "'Sensitive' UK terror funding inquiry may never be published". 1 June 2017. Archived from the original on 6 June 2017.
    186. Lerner, Davide (20 August 2017). "It's Not Islam That Drives Young Europeans to Jihad, France's Top Terrorism Expert Explains". Haaretz. Retrieved 10 June 2018.
    187. 1 2 Lerner, Davide (14 June 2017). "London Gave Shelter to Radical Islam and Now It's Paying the Price, French Terrorism Expert Says". Haaretz. Retrieved 10 June 2018.
    188. Malik, Nesrine (30 July 2018). "Behind the Isis 'Beatle' Elsheikh is a story of breakdown and despair | Nesrine Malik". The Guardian via www.theguardian.com.
    189. 1 2 "Britain has more Islamist extremists than any other EU country". The Independent. 1 September 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
    190. FACTSHEET: HENRY JACKSON SOCIETY. 13 June 2018. Georgetown University. Bridge Initiative Team. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
    191. Griffin, T., Aked, H., Miller, D., & Marusek, S. (2015). The Henry Jackson Society and the degeneration of British neoconservatism: Liberal interventionism, Islamophobia and the 'War on Terror'. Glasgow: Public Interest Investigations. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
    192. "Saudi Arabia has 'clear link' to UK extremism, report says". BBC. 5 July 2017. Archived from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
    193. Elgot, Jessica (4 July 2017). "Theresa May sitting on report on foreign funding of UK extremists". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 July 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
    194. Dorsey, James M (6 July 2017). "Saudi Arabian Extremism in the UK: Inside the Henry Jackson Report". The Market Mogal. Archived from the original on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
    195. Turner, Camilla (15 September 2018). "Hard line groups are 'weaponising' Islamophobia, Government's counter-extremism tsar warns". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
    196. Wike, Richard; Poushter, Jacob; Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Fetterolf, Janell; Castillo, Alexandra; Huang, Christine (14 October 2019). "EUROPEAN PUBLIC OPINION THREE DECADES AFTER THE FALL OF COMMUNISM - 6. Minority groups". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
    197. Richardson, John E. (2004). (Mis)representing Islam: the racism and rhetoric of British broadsheet newspapers. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 90-272-2699-7.
    198. Vikram Dood (21 October 2006). "White pupils less tolerant, survey shows". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    199. "Muslim students 'more tolerant'". BBC News. 11 October 2006. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
    200. Dunt, Ian (7 May 2009). "Muslims more patriotic than Brits". Politics.co.uk. Archived from the original on 19 July 2009. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
    201. "Poll: European Muslims more patriotic than average populace". Haaretz. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 7 May 2009. Archived from the original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
    202. Nick Allen (24 February 2009). "79 per cent of Muslims say Christianity should have strong role in Britain". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
    203. "Britain divided by Islam, survey finds". The Daily Telegraph. London. 11 January 2010. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    204. "Login".
    205. "What Do Europeans Think About Muslim Immigration?". chathamhouse.org. 7 February 2017. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
    206. Rogers, Joel (4 June 2013). "British attitudes to integration". YouGov. London. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014.
    207. "Attitudes to Living in Britain" (PDF). GfK NOP Social Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2014.
    208. "Muslims in Europe: Economic Worries Top Concerns About Religious and Cultural Identity" (PDF). pewglobal.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
    209. "Muslims are well-integrated in Britain – but no one seems to believe it; Leon Moosavi | Comment is free | guardian.co.uk". Guardian. London. 3 July 2012. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
    210. Julian Borger (23 June 2006). "Poll shows Muslims in Britain are the most anti-western in Europe". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 November 2016.
    211. "radical islam" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
    212. Wilson, Graeme (29 January 2007). "Young, British Muslims 'getting more radical'". Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
    213. Stephen Bates and agencies (29 January 2007). "More young Muslims back sharia, says poll; UK news". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 23 August 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2012.
    214. 1 2 Butt, Riazat (7 May 2009). "Muslims in Britain have zero tolerance of homosexuality, says poll". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 30 September 2013. Retrieved 29 September 2013.
    215. Hundal, Sunny (27 June 2011). "UK Muslims prouder of gay rights than others". Liberal Conspiracy. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 29 September 2013.
    216. "Poll says Muslims are 'proud' of Britain's gay rights". pinknews.co.uk. 27 June 2011. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012.
    217. "Britons more proud of the National Trust than the Royal Family". Archived from the original on 22 September 2013.
    218. "Muslim leaders stand against gay marriage". The Daily Telegraph. London. 18 May 2013. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017.
    219. "Premier League: How Muslims are changing English football culture". BBC. 5 July 2013. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
    220. Murray, Jessica (25 January 2022). "Middle-class Britons more likely to be biased about Islam, finds survey". The Guardian.
    221. "The Dinner Table Prejudice: Islamophobia in Contemporary Britain" (PDF). University of Birmingham. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
    222. Osborne, Samuel (7 February 2017). "Most Europeans want immigration ban from Muslim-majority countries, poll reveals". The Independent.
    223. Muslims threatened after bombings BBC News 12 July 2005
    224. Vikram Dood (13 July 2005). "Islamophobia blamed for attack". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    225. Muslim graves damaged in cemetery BBC News, 2 November 2006
    226. "Muslim teenager stabbed during attack on UK mosque". Arabic News. 3 October 2006. Archived from the original on 7 November 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    227. Vikram Dood (28 January 2010). "Media and politicians 'fuel rise in hate crimes against Muslims'". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    228. Jonathan Githens-Mazer; Robert Lambert (28 January 2010). "Muslims in the UK: beyond the hype". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
    229. Githens-Mazer, Jonathan; Lambert, Robert. "Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Hate Crime: a London Case Study" (PDF). University of Exeter. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2010.
    230. Gilligan, Andrew (9 June 2013). "Muslim hate monitor to lose backing". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 25 April 2018.
    231. 1 2 Preventing violent extremism: sixth report of session 2009–10. The Stationery Office. 30 March 2010. ISBN 9780215545466. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
    232. 1 2 Allen, Chris (2010). "Fear and Loathing: the Political Discourse in Relation to Muslims and Islam in the British Contemporary Setting" (PDF). Politics and Religion Journal. 4 (2): 221–236. doi:10.54561/prj0402221a. S2CID 55206236. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
    233. 1 2 Garland, Jon; Treadwell, James (2010). "'No Surrender to the Taliban': Football Hooliganism, Islamophobia and the Rise of the English Defence League" (PDF). Papers from the British Criminology Conference. 10: 19–35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
    234. "Telegraph.co.uk". London: Telegraph.co.uk. 14 December 2010. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
    235. Helen Carter (21 October 2010). "Guardian.co.uk". London. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
    236. "English Defence League says Pastor Terry Jones will not speak at rally". The Daily Telegraph. London. 14 December 2010. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017.
    237. Helen Carter (21 October 2010). "Inquiry: Police, anti-fascist protester". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
    238. O'Brien, Paraic (12 October 2009). "Under the skin of English Defence League". BBC Newsnight. Archived from the original on 15 October 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2009.
    239. Maryam Namazie (5 July 2010). "Sharia, Law, religious courts". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
    240. "English Defence League's Bradford march banned by Theresa May". Metro. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2011. The right-wing campaign group, which claims to be taking a stand against what it sees as the rise of radical Islam in England, had planned to march through the streets of Bradford on 28 August.
    241. "Violence erupts at far-right march in Birmingham". Reuters. 5 September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 July 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2011. A little-known nationalist group calling itself the English Defence League met in the town centre to protest against what they see as Islamic militancy in Britain
    242. Britain's fascists in a right state Archived 19 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
    243. Gunning (2010): p 151–152
    244. Morey, Peter; Yaqin, Amina. (2011). Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation After 9/11. Harvard University Press. p. 215.
    245. Anonymous-linked groups publish EDL supporters' personal information Archived 28 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
    246. Layton, Josh (3 December 2018). "Sikh girls 'abused by grooming gangs for decades'". BirminghamLive. Retrieved 28 April 2021.
    247. Cockbain, Ella; Tufail, Waqas (2020). "Failing victims, fuelling hate: Challenging the harms of the 'Muslim grooming gangs' narrative". Race & Class. 61 (3): 3–32. doi:10.1177/0306396819895727. S2CID 214197388.
    248. 1 2 Jagbir Jhutti-Johal; Sunny Hundal (August 2019). The changing nature of activism among Sikhs in the UK today. The Commission For Countering Extremism. University of Birmingham. p. 15. WayBackMachine Link. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
    249. Katy Sian (17 October 2017). Patriarchy, Islamophobia and Misogyny: On challenging the politics of Sikh Youth UK. Ceasefire Magazine. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
    250. Sian, Katy P. (6 July 2011). "'Forced' conversions in the British Sikh diaspora" (PDF). South Asian Popular Culture. 9 (2): 115–130. doi:10.1080/14746681003798060. S2CID 54174845.
    251. Hasan, Mehdi (21 March 2013). "The sorry truth is that the virus of anti-Semitism has infected the British Muslim community". The New Statesman.
    252. "British Muslims twice as likely to espouse anti-Semitic views, survey suggests". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 12 September 2017.
    253. May, Callum (13 September 2017). "Over a quarter of British people 'hold anti-Semitic attitudes', study finds". BBC News.
    254. "Minorities still believe in tolerant Britain, poll finds".
    255. Timol, Riyaz (14 October 2019). "Structures of Organisation and Loci of Authority in a Glocal Islamic Movement: The Tablighi Jama'at in Britain". Religions. 10 (10): 573. doi:10.3390/rel10100573.

    Sources

    Further reading

    • Koenig, Matthias. "Incorporating Muslim migrants in Western nation states—a comparison of the United Kingdom, France, and Germany." in Marian Burchardt & Ines Michalowski, eds., After Integration (Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2015) pp. 43–58.
    • Lewicki, Aleksandra, and Therese O’Toole. "Acts and practices of citizenship: Muslim women’s activism in the UK. Ethnic and Racial Studies 40#1 (2017): 152-171.
    • Lewicki, Aleksandra. Social Justice Through Citizenship?: The Politics of Muslim Integration in Germany and Great Britain (Springer, 2014).
    • Lewis, Valerie A., and Ridhi Kashyap. "Piety in a Secular Society: Migration, Religiosity, and Islam in Britain." International Migration 51#3 (2013): 57–66.
    • Model, Suzanne, and Lang Lin. "The cost of not being Christian: Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims in Britain and Canada." International Migration Review 36#4 (2002): 1061–1092.
    • Peach, Ceri, and Richard Gale. "Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs in the new religious landscape of England." Geographical Review 93#4 (2003): 469–490.
    This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.